Philosophy of Humanity

Philosophy of Education

Antiquity and the Middle Ages

Modern European pedagogy is a direct descendant of the educational and formative traditions that originated in Antiquity and evolved through the Middle Ages. The European educational legacy is profoundly indebted to Ancient Greece, where, at the dawn of its history, the Greeks settled throughout the Mediterranean coast. They did not create a vast monolithic empire but rather established small city-states (poleis), each with its own culture and traditions of communal life. Some poleis were governed by democracy, while others were ruled by military dictatorship. The methods of societal organization and cultural characteristics influenced their educational goals. A prime example of a military dictatorship in Ancient Greece was Sparta. In this polis, where military values were held in the highest regard, all educational and training efforts were directed towards preparing warriors. Boys were trained from a young age to become soldiers, with education focusing on military skills, combat techniques, and weaponry. Given the importance of physical fitness for soldiers, significant emphasis was placed on developing physical abilities and conditioning the body. However, the primary goal of education in Sparta was to nurture true Spartans. Even today, the term "Spartan" evokes images of physically and psychologically robust warriors devoted to their country, willing to sacrifice basic individual needs for the common good, and characterized by unwavering patriotism. The cultivation of these traits was elevated to the highest aims of Spartan education and training.

In contrast, the democratic poleis, such as Athens, pursued different educational goals. They aimed to cultivate individuals who valued civic institutions, respected laws and customs, and cherished their homeland, with the promotion of civic freedoms being central to their educational objectives. Socrates, a notable example of the effectiveness of the Athenian educational system, was unjustly sentenced to death by the Athenian court. Understanding the injustice of his sentence, Socrates faced a choice: to submit to execution and remain a citizen of Athens, even in death, or to escape from prison and the city, remaining alive but without civic rights for the rest of his days. Socrates chose execution, as remaining outside the community of his beloved Athens was a more unbearable prospect than death itself. Socrates’ example illustrates the values imparted by the Athenian educational system.

The term "pedagogy" itself is rooted in Ancient Greek culture. The Greek term "παιδαγωγική τέχνη" (the art of pedagogy) derives from "παιδαγωγός" (pedagogue), which is formed from "παΐς" (child) and "αγειν" (to lead). Originally, a pedagogue was a slave tasked with escorting the children of free families to school and supervising them during their free time. Over time, these slave-pedagogues evolved into tutors responsible for educating and raising children. Thus, the term "pedagogue," which initially referred to a servant's duties, began to denote someone who teaches and educates. In Ancient Greek city-states, society was divided into free individuals and slaves, with their roles clearly delineated. Slaves performed physical labor, while free individuals engaged in intellectual pursuits. Consequently, the skills imparted to free people differed from those taught to slaves. Slaves were trained in agricultural work, crafts, and so forth. A tradition emerged distinguishing the skills of free individuals from those of slaves. As the Greek word "τέχνη" (skill) was translated into Latin as "ars" (art), European culture adopted a tradition of distinguishing between liberal and servile arts. The liberal arts referred to the seven fundamental disciplines that every student was expected to master at the basic level of education. These seven liberal arts were divided into the trivium, which included grammar, logic, and rhetoric, and the quadrivium, comprising arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. Only after mastering these subjects could students proceed to higher education disciplines such as philosophy, theology, medicine, and law.

Sport played a significant role in the educational system of the time, not as an end in itself but as part of religious ritual. Greek youth trained their bodies and developed physical aptitudes. In 776 BC, the first Olympic Games were organized to honor Zeus, believed to have been established by Zeus and his son Heracles, who decreed that they be held every four years.

Philosophers of Ancient Greece engaged in debates about educational issues. Socrates believed that people are born with all possible knowledge and inherent dispositions towards goodness, but these are implicit and require educational effort to be brought to light. For Socrates, the teacher, in educating and raising a child or youth, does not instill external traits but helps realize the innate potentials already present in the student. Socrates referred to his method of teaching as the maieutic method, or the method of midwifery. Just as a midwife assists in the birth of a child already present in the womb, so too does the teacher help bring forth the knowledge and goodness inherent in human nature.

Socrates’ thoughts were further developed by his student Plato, who left a vast philosophical legacy. Plato authored works on the ideal state, analyzing the features necessary for communal life. In this context, he devoted significant attention to education and training. Plato was convinced that a strong state capable of ensuring the happiness of its citizens could not be built without a high-quality system of education and training. He meticulously considered the elements of education, with substantial emphasis placed on learning, music, art, physical exercise, and more. Plato’s educational objectives were shaped by his anthropological and moral views. He believed that the human soul comprises three parts: the rational, the spirited, and the appetitive. Each part must attain its state of perfection, or virtue. For the rational part of the soul, virtue is wisdom; for the spirited part, it is temperance; and for the appetitive part, it is courage. When a person achieves these three internal virtues, social virtue—justice—emerges. These four virtues, known as cardinal virtues, should guide the educational system: wisdom is attained through learning, temperance through moral values, courage through physical exercises, and justice through the fulfillment of civic duties and proper treatment of others.

Each ancient philosopher founded his own school, where he taught students. Some of these schools existed for many centuries. As there were no educational standards at the time, each school developed its own educational and formative traditions. Over time, the names of some philosophical schools changed. For instance, "Academy" in antiquity referred to Plato’s school, located in an area dedicated to the hero Academus, while "Lyceum" referred to Aristotle’s school, situated in an area dedicated to the hero Lyceus. Both schools were located in Athens. Later, these terms began to denote different types of educational institutions.

During the Hellenistic period, pedagogy evolved within the framework of ethics, which became the primary focus of philosophy at that time. The most influential school of the Hellenistic period was Stoicism. This philosophical school advocated high moral ideals, renunciation of pleasures, moderation, and concentration on the inner self. Stoics considered the state of apatheia, or emotional detachment, as the goal of spiritual and moral development. A Stoic sage is a person who has attained such a level of spirituality and morality that no external factors can disturb their inner peace. Apatheia (Stoic or philosophical calm) is the ability to remain unmoved by both positive and negative stimuli. Even pain should not disrupt the inner peace of a Stoic sage. To cultivate apatheia in their students, Stoics promoted strict asceticism aimed at achieving catharsis (spiritual and moral purification). The Stoics’ influence on educational theory was monumental, establishing a lasting belief that a well-educated person is one who can control their emotions, limit their needs, and maintain spiritual and moral resilience under any circumstances. Pedagogy was directed towards achieving these goals.

The Middle Ages introduced new ideals, marked by the dominance of Christianity in Europe, the fall of the Roman Empire, and the settlement of Europe by Germanic and Slavic tribes. These changes ended the classical culture and the values upon which it was based. After the collapse of classical culture, much of its achievements were lost. The young peoples of Europe, who had no connection to classical culture, were just beginning to build their own civilization. The institution that undertook the task of building this new civilization was the Church. Political leaders of the emerging European nations often did not see the value of education and culture, and most were illiterate, focusing solely on military qualities in their children. Early medieval education lacked state support, and artisans and peasants saw no purpose in developing education. The Church, recognizing the necessity of quality education and training for building a high culture, took on this burden. The Church’s first contribution to European culture was the scriptorium, institutions dedicated to manuscript copying. Since printing had not yet been invented, books had to be copied by hand, a laborious and costly task performed by monks, who were among the few literate individuals in early medieval society and understood the role of books in cultural development.

Another invention of the Church was the medieval schools. These were established within monasteries and cathedral churches. Gradually, these schools evolved into universities—universal institutions where one could acquire all available knowledge. Church schools were created to supply the Church with educated personnel. Bishops gathered talented young men eager to learn and entrusted them to the education of cathedral priests. The abbot of the cathedral was responsible for the educational process. In Latin, the head of the cathedral was referred to as "rector." To this day, the term "rector" is used for the leader of an educational institution. Rectors determined which priests would teach which courses, the duration of studies, and other such details. Eventually, church schools grew so large that one group of priests could no longer combine service in the cathedral with teaching at the school. The schools had to be separated from the cathedral, but the educational system remained the same as in the temple and monastic schools. Since early schools did not have separate facilities, classes were held in churches. In every cathedral, there is an elevation where the bishop stands during the liturgy. This place is called the "cathedra," from which the name "cathedral" derives. After the separation of the school from the church, the place where the professor stands during a lecture continued to be called the "cathedra." Universities are divided into faculties, each led by a dean. The term "dean" originally referred to the leader of a district in the Catholic Church. To this day, students learn in classrooms, rooms reminiscent of temples. Thus, the phrase "temple of knowledge" has not only a metaphorical meaning.

Schools that achieved particularly high levels of education and fame evolved into universities. Most ancient universities were founded by the Church. The Pope issued a special bull to establish a university. Universities expanded, and academic specializations became more complex. Eventually, a tradition arose of dividing universities into four faculties. All students entering the university began their studies at the Faculty of the Liberal Arts, a nod to ancient tradition. At this faculty, they studied the seven liberal arts: the trivium (grammar, logic, rhetoric) and the quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music). The Faculty of the Liberal Arts corresponded to the level of a modern secondary school. Since students came with varying levels of preparation, they needed a foundational education. Upon completing the Faculty of the Liberal Arts, students could proceed to study one of three faculties: theology, law, or medicine. Medieval universities developed specific forms of learning: lectures and disputations. The Latin word "lectio" means "to read." The professor would read important quotations from the Bible, ancient authors, philosophers, or medieval scholars on a given topic, and students would debate these quotations. Hence, the word "disputatio" means "to debate." Over time, collections of carefully selected and grouped quotations appeared. Such collections were called "Libri sententiarum." Not all students continued to specialized faculties, as the education at the Faculty of the Liberal Arts was sufficient for literacy, enabling work as scribes, chancellors, or secretaries. Those who continued their studies at specialized faculties joined the ranks of clergy, lawyers, or doctors. Thus, the Catholic Church became the creator of the European education system, establishing features that are fundamental to contemporary university education worldwide.

In addition to church schools and universities, other educational institutions existed. Monastic novitiates played a significant role in this area. Each monastery had its own rules for admitting new monks and its own statutes, traditions, and customs. When a candidate expressed a desire to join the monastery, he was not immediately allowed to make perpetual vows. Initially, he had to spend several years in the monastery without permanent commitments to observe monastic life and make a final decision. This period was called the novitiate. The abbot appointed senior and experienced monks to oversee the novices (candidates for the monastery). Novices not only observed monastic life but also underwent education, which included general education (the seven liberal arts) and specific monastic training. For instance, if a monastery was engaged in manuscript copying, novices were taught calligraphy; if the monastery managed a hospital, monks studied medicine. As education in the novitiate was of high quality, monks were among the most educated people of that time.

The third educational space was the guilds. In the 11th and 12th centuries, craft workshops began to appear in various European cities. At the head of a workshop was a master, who had extensive professional training in his craft and sufficient funds to purchase equipment. Apprentices joined masters who could not establish their own workshops. They became apprentices, assisting and learning from the masters. After some time, apprentices became journeymen and continued working under the master's guidance. Workshops were organized into corporations known as guilds. Guilds and the workshops they comprised provided not only good professional training in a craft but also cultivated certain traits necessary for guild membership: respect for the master, strict adherence to guild rules, and the behavior expected of a guild member in society. Guild education was technical and focused on the craft but also included important educational components.

Besides church schools, monastic novitiates, and craft guilds, the environment also served as an educational space. As people do not live in isolation from the world and society, everything surrounding them educates and instructs them: within the family, people inherit family traditions; each city or village has its own traditions, which people assimilate. The Church played a crucial role in education and upbringing: Christians underwent catechesis, listened to sermons, confessed, and received religious education at home. Thus, a unique type of person—the creator of European culture—was formed.

The Renaissance marked a new chapter in the history of European culture and pedagogy. During this time, scholars and artists were captivated by Antiquity, recreating ancient artistic styles. A defining feature of this period was humanism, which elevated the individual to the status of high value. Pedagogical questions were also significant at this time. Numerous Renaissance thinkers devoted their works to the themes of education and training. Among them, Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469-1536) held a special place. This period saw the emergence of a new style of philosophical literature—utopia. Utopia authors described the project of an ideal state. Aware that establishing a good state was impossible without education and upbringing, they devoted much attention to this issue. The most famous authors of utopias were Thomas More (1478-1535) and Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639).