Philosophy of Society

Philosophy of History

History Before Ranke

Since the advent of writing, humanity has begun to record history, thus giving rise to historiography. However, different eras have placed varying emphases on historical narrative. History, being a creative science, is profoundly shaped by the historian's personal interests. Faced with the overwhelming abundance of events, historians must select those they deem worthy of description while discarding others. Each historian chooses events that align with their scholarly paradigm. While historians of one era might focus on the deeds of kings and knights, those of another might emphasize the socio-economic conditions of peoples, and still others might delve into the feelings and experiences of participants in historical events. Thus, historiography has exhibited distinct characteristics across different periods.

From ancient times, historians aimed to describe events of particular significance to states, with a primary focus on wars, often highlighting victories of their own people. The more vividly historians portrayed their homeland's triumphs and conquests, the more these narratives fostered a sense of national pride. As the bearer of charisma, the king became a central figure in many stories, his deeds and wise governance symbolizing the well-being and peace of the people. After the establishment of the Roman Empire, emperors and Roman generals became the primary subjects of historical accounts.

During the Middle Ages, the focus of historiography shifted. Since educated individuals of the time were predominantly Christian monks, their religious beliefs significantly influenced their historical interests. For medieval scholars, history was a portrayal of divine actions in human affairs. Historiography was to serve educational and enlightening purposes, with past events gaining meaning only as they provided moral lessons for the present. Historians aimed to show that every event had its place in God's plan of salvation. History was conceived as linear, beginning with creation and extending into eternity, with the Nativity of Christ being the central event. Chronicles, or sequential descriptions of events, became a popular historiographical genre of the Middle Ages.

The Renaissance marked a significant shift in European scientific perspectives: major geographical discoveries altered perceptions of space; Europeans encountered people of different races, unfamiliar animals, and new plants on new continents; and Nicolaus Copernicus's heliocentrism revolutionized the understanding of planetary arrangement. Economic development spurred the rise of new social classes (bourgeoisie), whose interests centered on their societal roles rather than monarchs and nobles who had previously dominated historical narratives. The fascination with Antiquity revived ancient literature. Influenced by these profound worldview changes and inspired by classical literature, Renaissance historians approached historiography as narrative (storytelling). They sought to vividly recount the past to captivate their readers, writing engaging histories of their cities and states with the aim of glorifying their homelands. Narratives about Italian cities, experiencing rapid economic growth and new political systems, became particularly popular. Leonardo Bruni Arettino's "In Praise of Florence" (1404) and "History of Florence in 12 Books" (1439), Poggio Bracciolini's "On the Variations of Fortune in the City of Rome" (1431-1448), and Niccolò Machiavelli's "Florentine Histories" (1520-1525) exemplify this trend. Renaissance thinkers believed they were reviving Antiquity, hence the term "Renaissance" - "rebirth." They divided history into Antiquity, the Renaissance of Antiquity, and the Middle Ages - the periods between Antiquity and its revival. German scholar Christoph Keller (1634-1707) was the first to propose dividing history into ancient (until Constantine the Great), medieval (from Constantine to the fall of Constantinople in 1453), and modern periods.

In the 17th century, historical science was influenced by the general trends of scientific development. It was an era of great scientific discoveries and fascination with the possibilities of science. The active development of philosophy, natural science, and literature inspired historians to new achievements. Antiquarians, historians focused on the exhaustive description of the past, became the dominant school of historiography of this period. While medieval historians aimed to educate and instruct based on past facts, and Renaissance historians crafted "glorious histories" of their homelands, antiquarians documented everything related to the past, amassing vast amounts of material and updating sources. Their subjects included biographies of notable figures, descriptions of lands, statistical data, and religious history, including lives of saints and figures of the Catholic and Protestant Reformations.

The 18th century, known as the Age of Enlightenment, was grounded in the belief that all people deserve happiness, as all are equal, and that general happiness can only be achieved when all aspects of life (personal, governmental, economic, etc.) are rationally organized. Enlightenment thinkers sought to educate, enlighten, and make everyone reasonable, primarily through encyclopedias—a comprehensive collection of condensed knowledge aimed at broad dissemination rather than new scientific discoveries. Thus, Enlightenment historians created "philosophical history," subordinating their historical narratives to their philosophical paradigms rather than seeking historical truth.