Philosophy of Society

Philosophy of History

History After Ranke

Grand transformations in the methods of historical science occurred during the 18th and 19th centuries. This period saw the emergence of two philosophical currents that shaped changes in historiography: historicism and positivism. Historicism is the philosophical belief that human history is a continuous and progressive process, rather than a mere collection of isolated events. This belief was grounded in Hegel’s philosophy, which posited that history represents the continuous unfolding of the Absolute Spirit. Positivism, a philosophical movement initiated by Auguste Comte, rests on the conviction that true science must be based on empirical data and rely solely on proven and reliable information. Historicism provided historians with grounds to argue that history is a logical process with inherent patterns, whose study constitutes the essence of historical inquiry; while positivism established a rigorous scientific method.

The culmination of these changes was the "Rankean Revolution" in history. The very name of this revolution links significant methodological shifts in historiography to the distinguished German historian Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886). Ranke synthesized historicism and positivism, laying the foundational principles of modern historiography. He viewed history as an expression of Divine Providence, a realization of the plan that God has for the world and humanity. The historian's task is to decipher Divine Providence, which imparts meaning to the continuity of historical events. To accomplish this task, a critical method of historical research is essential. Just as an astronomer must seek the truth beyond mere appearances, so must a historian critically assess historical sources (documents, chronicles, records, etc.), rather than accepting them at face value. The author of a document might not have known the full truth, may present it one-sidedly, be mistaken, or deliberately distort facts. To assert that a text conveys the truth, the authenticity of the document must be proven. Ranke proclaimed that the historian’s duty is to uncover "what actually happened."

After Ranke, critical analysis of sources became the primary method of historical research. Historians could no longer merely describe facts or recount narratives; they had to substantiate the authenticity of each source and critically assess any thesis. Ranke's principles of historicism were continued by his numerous followers, including Johann Gustav Droysen (1808-1884), who in his work "Principles of Historical Science" articulated the methodology of historical research. For Droysen, history was the realization of moral principles endowed by Divine Providence, and the historian’s task was to reconstruct the moral world, examining how these principles were manifested in the past.

Despite the rigor of Ranke’s methods, 19th-century history often resembled literary fiction. Historians of this era aimed not to write dull treatises but rather engaging books accessible to broad audiences. They developed a style akin to literary art and practiced elegant writing. This gave rise to critiques of history as a science. French sociologist and ethnologist Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) argued that history could not be considered a science because it studies unique events, whereas science should study patterns, i.e., the repetition of facts under similar conditions. Furthermore, historical data could not be verified through experimentation.

Alongside Ranke, the Swiss historian Jacob Christoph Burckhardt (1818-1897) developed his own historical school. While agreeing with Ranke that source criticism was essential for the scientific nature of history, Burckhardt explored different themes. Unlike Ranke, whose focus was on politics—describing the actions of politicians, state institutions, and so forth—Burckhardt was interested in the everyday life and spiritual culture of the past. He examined how people lived, what they ate, how they worked, entertained themselves, and what literature they read, all of which became the subjects of historical study in Burckhardt’s research.

Economic history emerged as a focus of the "new economic-historical school," prominently represented by Germans Gustav von Schmoller (1838-1917), Ludwig Joseph "Lujo" Brentano (1844-1931), and Karl Wilhelm Büchner (1847-1930).

German historian Karl Lamprecht (1856-1915) believed that the essence of history lay in psychological principles: past events and processes were manifestations of the human psyche and could only be understood through psychology.

The late 19th century marked the zenith of history. Historical faculties were established in various European and American universities, academic degrees in history began to be conferred, numerous historical journals were published, and various historical societies were founded. All these developments contributed to the establishment of history not only as a literary genre but as a distinct science with its own principles and foundations.

By the end of the 19th century, France became one of the centers of historical research, giving rise to the methodological school of history. Its founders, Charles Seignobos (1854-1942) and Charles-Victor Langlois (1863-1929), embraced the positivist method, asserting that historians should not seek the logic of historical processes but study individual facts. Since facts are known exclusively through documents, historians should examine documents with extreme care and maintain a critical stance. The methodological school placed even greater emphasis on the positivist principle of critique than Ranke. Documents are the sole sources conveying historical facts, so if there is no document, there is no event. In 1898, Seignobos and Langlois published "Introduction to the Study of History," based on their lectures at the Sorbonne. This work became a guide for historical research, forming the basis for all subsequent followers of the methodological school. Thus, the methodological school was founded on extreme meticulousness in the critical examination of sources.

The positivism of Seignobos and Langlois became outdated by the mid-20th century. The dryness of the positivist method and the limitations of this type of history led to the emergence of a new trend in historical science. In 1929, French historians Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre founded a journal, which still exists today and has undergone several name changes: "Annales" (1929-1939), "Annales of Social and Economic History" (1939-1941), "Annales of Social History" (1941-1945), "Annales. Economy. Society" (1945-1994), and "Annales. History, Social Sciences" (since 1994). The recurring term "Annales" led to the designation of historians associated with this journal as the "Annales School."

The development of the Annales School can be divided into three periods. The first period, represented by the founders of the Annales, Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre, is marked by a focus on historical-anthropological research. History began to collaborate with other fields of knowledge: economics, cultural studies, religious studies, and more. This allowed for a broader view of the past, considering human activity in its full range of manifestations. The second period of the Annales School is most vividly represented by Fernand Braudel (1902-1985). During this time, the school further emphasized the connection between history and other sciences. The task of history became to encompass the entirety of the past, studying individuals not as isolated entities but as parts of culture, society, and economy. The third period was characterized by Georges Duby (1919-1996) and Jacques Le Goff (1924-2014), who focused on the study of collective and individual consciousness.

In the 20th century, history became increasingly specialized. Rather than broad views of the past, the focus shifted to the study of specific groups or aspects of societal life. Thus, new fields emerged:

• Military history: examines wars, their progress and consequences, the development of military technology and organization, the formation of military branches, and military strategies.
• History of religions: studies historical changes in the lives of the world's religions.
• Political history: explores the past of political and social institutions, changes in forms of governance, constitutional orders, and more.
• Diachronic (historical-comparative) linguistics: investigates the history of language by comparing linguistic constructs across different historical periods.
• Gender history: examines the role of women in various historical epochs.
• Intellectual history: focuses on changes in intellectual life, the facts of scientific discoveries, and the role of scientific and notable scholarly institutions of the past.
• Historical urbanism: explores the history of urban culture development.
• Historical geography: investigates the impacts of geographical and natural conditions on history (e.g., climate changes in a country and their effects on demographics).
• History of culture: studies changes in culture and its peculiarities.
• Economic history: analyzes historical changes in modes of economic activity and the economic life of nations.