History of Philosophy

Philosophy of The Middle Ages

Patristics of the 1st-3rd Centuries

The first phase of Patristics was marked by the era of the Apostolic Fathers—those who began writing religious works immediately after the Apostles. The 1st century was characterized by the composition of the New Testament, including the Gospels and Apostolic Epistles. With the death of the Apostles, who had directly witnessed Jesus Christ and heard His teachings, the Bible was completed. Subsequent writings, even if they contained similar ideas, did not form part of the Biblical canon. These writings, however, constituted the initial stage of Christian literature and stimulated the development of medieval philosophy. Notable works from this period include:

• Didache or The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles - A text attributed to the Apostles, detailing the life and customs of Christian communities and providing moral instructions.
• Epistle of Pseudo-Barnabas - A letter attributed to Barnabas, discussing Christians' views on the Old Testament and addressing moral issues.
• The Shepherd of Hermas - A letter where Hermas recounts his spiritual journey and the early Christian community’s nature, analyzing the Church.
• Letters of Clement of Rome - Two epistles that analyze the Church’s nature and address moral problems.
• Epistles of Ignatius of Antioch - Seven letters from the leader of the Syrian Christians condemned to death, examining the meaning of martyrdom and sacrifice for high values.
• Polycarp of Smyrna and Papias of Hierapolis - Also wrote on moral themes and the organization of early Christian communities.

The central theme of these Apostolic Fathers' works was morality, depicting moral choices as two life paths: good and evil. Hence, their writings are sometimes called the literature of the two ways. These works are crucial as the earliest post-Biblical texts that laid the foundation for Christian theology and philosophy.

At the same time, numerous apocryphal texts emerged—writings resembling Biblical texts in content and attributed to the Apostles. Some early Christian authors aimed to present their religious experiences, but to give their texts authority, they attributed them to the Apostles. Apocrypha serve as sources for studying early Christian culture but are not recognized by the Church as divinely inspired.

In the 2nd century, another group of Christian writers emerged: the Apologists. Unlike the Apostolic Fathers, who wrote to Christians, the Apologists aimed to explain Christianity and demonstrate its value to non-Christians. To make their writings comprehensible to pagans, they employed the achievements of ancient philosophy and culture. Thus, Apologist writings represent the initial encounter between Christianity and ancient philosophy, marking the first stage of inculturation, or Christianity's entry into the Greco-Roman cultural sphere.

Among the most renowned Christian Apologists were Athenagoras of Athens, Theophilus of Antioch, Justin Martyr, and Tatian the Assyrian. The central tenet defended by the Apologists was the theology of the Logos. Ancient thinkers believed that the world was created rationally, meaning that it is underpinned by divine reason (Logos). The Apologists argued that the Logos, spoken of by ancient philosophers, is the Son of God. He existed eternally within God the Father as His reason, manifested as the foundation of creation at the world's inception, and, at the historical climax, incarnated in Jesus Christ.

The 2nd and 3rd centuries, in addition to the writings of the Apostolic Fathers, apocrypha, and Apologies, produced another block of literature addressing a wide range of topics relevant to early Christianity. These included:

• Irenaeus of Lyons, born in the mid-2nd century in Asia Minor but later moving to Gaul, where he led the local Christian community. He devoted his works to polemics against the Gnostics and interpreted the act of salvation at the core of Christian faith. He explained that humans had sinned and, as a result, fell into the devil's captivity, from which they could not escape on their own. The main consequence of sin is death. Through His incarnation and resurrection, Christ overcame the devil and granted salvation and immortality to humanity, which individuals could either accept or reject. Their choice is reflected in their moral lives: adhering to God's law signifies acceptance of His gift, while failing to do so means rejecting it.
• Tertullian - A North African early Christian writer born in the mid-2nd century, who received an excellent education and became known for numerous works. His stance differed from other Christian authors of the period: while most embraced ancient heritage and promoted intellectual efforts to understand Christian doctrine, Tertullian symbolized a negative attitude towards antiquity. He believed that ancient culture and philosophy were sources of heresy and deceit, a radical stance that ultimately led him to the heresy of Montanism. Tertullian asserted that the soul is by nature Christian, meaning that the human nature inherently inclines towards Christianity, though not all are aware of this. He also taught that the soul is transmitted to humans from their parents, unlike the Church's teaching that parents pass only the body while God gives each person their soul. According to Tertullian, understanding faith does not require reason, as reason is incapable of grasping the truth. One must simply believe. Thus, Tertullian’s philosophical motto became "Credo, quia absurdum" (I believe because it is absurd).
• Hippolytus of Rome - Analyzed the possibility of readmitting to the Church those who sinned after baptism. Early Church was very strict regarding Christians' moral lives. If someone was baptized, they completely renounced sin. Sinning again after baptism was seen as evidence of insincerity in their baptism, leading to their excommunication from the Church. A debate among theologians of the time ensued on whether such Christians should be readmitted to the community after repentance and atonement or whether they were forever barred from the Church. Hippolytus represented the radical wing and argued against the readmission of sinners into the community. This debate prompted Hippolytus and others to address a vast array of issues related to salvation, sin, morality, and more.
• Cyprian of Carthage - Lived in the 3rd century and was a bishop in North Africa during the persecutions initiated by Emperor Decius. After the persecutions, a debate arose about how to deal with those who had renounced Christianity during the persecutions and who should decide whether to accept them back into the Church. The debate divided into two factions: one, led by Novatian, believed that those who had renounced the faith during persecutions should not be readmitted due to their weak faith, and that decisions regarding them should be made by confessors—those who had suffered during the persecutions but did not renounce the faith; while the other, led by Cyprian, argued that these individuals should be accepted back after repentance, with their fate decided by legitimate ecclesiastical authorities.
• The most prominent center of Christian philosophy of that time developed in Alexandria. A representative of Alexandrian Christian philosophy was Clement (150-215). He believed that God prepared all nations for the Incarnation of Christ, using different means for each people. He prepared the Jews through the Bible and the Greeks through philosophy, being a good teacher who leads everyone to salvation. Therefore, philosophy is a preparation for salvation. Christianity is a rational religion, and it cannot be fully understood without reason. Christians acknowledge their faith in different ways: some use reason and thereby attain knowledge, i.e., a higher level of faith; others adhere to Christianity for its authority and thus remain at a basic level of faith.
• The most outstanding philosopher among early Christian thinkers was Origen (185-253). In his numerous Biblical commentaries, he employed the allegorical method, believing that even seemingly minor details have significant meaning; otherwise, they would not be included in the Bible. Origen sought to incorporate Platonism into Christianity, sometimes even favoring Platonism over Christianity. He believed that God created rational spiritual beings capable of freely contemplating God. However, they deviated from their calling and sinned, resulting in their hardening and materialization—rational beings became embodied and material humans. Thus, matter was not the realization of the original divine plan but merely a consequence of the fall. Origen understood salvation as the return of rational spiritual beings to their natural state, i.e., the contemplation of God. Of all rational beings, only one did not deviate from contemplation; it united with the Divine Logos and was incarnated in Jesus Christ. Only one who was not enslaved by sin could save humanity. Origen believed that everything, even hell, would return to its original state. This teaching is known as apokatastasis.