History of Philosophy

Philosophy of The Middle Ages

Patristics of the 5th-7th Centuries

In the 8th century, Byzantine intellectuals turned their focus to a previously neglected issue: iconoclasm, the movement against the veneration of icons. The movement's primary advocate was Emperor Leo III the Isaurian, who not only debated the issue but also used his authority to persecute dissenters. His son, Emperor Constantine V Copronymus, was even more radical in his support of iconoclasm. Iconoclasts argued that honoring icons amounted to idolatry, as icons are human creations. They also sought to abolish the veneration of saints, close monasteries, and reform worship, opposing anything perceived as a mediator between God and humanity. Amid this controversy, John of Damascus (circa 650-754) emerged as a defender of icon veneration. He argued that Christians do not worship icons or saints, but only God, and that icons and saints are merely objects of veneration. He clearly distinguished between worship and veneration, asserting that while worship is due solely to God, veneration is an acknowledgment of God's presence in one’s life. It is impossible to worship God without honoring His manifestations. In 787, the Second Council of Nicaea condemned iconoclasm. However, 27 years later, Emperor Leo V the Armenian revived iconoclasm, though this second wave was less marked by polemics and terror than the first.

The era of patristics concluded with the debates on iconoclasm, which represented a shared intellectual heritage of the Eastern and Western Christian worlds. The following centuries brought forth significant Byzantine thinkers, active until the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople. A major topic of 9th-century Byzantine thought was the Photian Schism. In 858, Byzantine Emperor Michael III, in defiance of ecclesiastical canons, deposed Patriarch Ignatius of Constantinople and installed his own official, Photius. Pope Nicholas I defended Ignatius and condemned Photius' illegal appointment. In response, Photius initiated a prolonged conflict that split Rome and Constantinople for several years, known as the Photian Schism. Although this schism eventually ended, it set a precedent for ecclesiastical divisions that would reoccur in 1054 and remain unresolved to this day.

At the beginning of the second millennium, Byzantine intellectuals engaged in discussions about Hesychasm. Hesychasm, which originated within Eastern monasticism, is based on the belief that the goal of spiritual life is to achieve the vision of God through prayer and inner silence. The term "Hesychasm" itself comes from the Greek word for "silence" (ήσυχία). Hesychasts needed to address the question of what precisely the monk contemplates. Since the divine essence cannot be known, and Aristotle had posited that every substance expresses itself outwardly through what he termed "energy," Hesychasts adopted this idea and argued that monks contemplatively perceive God's energies. This claim sparked lively debate: Are these energies created by God or not? If they are created, then honoring them would be idolatry; if not, it implies that there is something uncreated besides the divine essence. Hesychasts maintained that divine energies are uncreated. This position was most consistently expressed by Simeon the New Theologian (949-1022) and Gregory Palamas (1296-1359). Palamas' chief opponent was Barlaam of Calabria, whose students included Francesco Petrarch and Giovanni Boccaccio.

The debate between Hesychasts and their opponents occurred mainly among monks, with laypeople showing little interest as they could not practice the monastic lifestyle. Laypeople were more concerned with theological ideas that could be applicable to their own forms of piety. Representing the concerns of laypeople in Byzantine theology was Nicholas Cabasilas (1322-1398), who focused on interpreting the liturgy as the center of spiritual life for the lay community. The development of religious philosophy in Byzantium came to an end with the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople.