Philosophy of Society

Philosophy of Culture

The Modern Age

The Renaissance served as a transitional period marking the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Modern Age, also known as the New Era or Early Modern Period. This era commenced with the Renaissance and concluded at the dawn of the 20th century. The term for this period in cultural history was introduced by Jean Bodin, who proposed dividing history into ancient, medieval, and modern. The culture of the Modern Age was characterized by features that starkly distinguished it from previous eras. In politics, absolutism emerged, concentrating power in the hands of monarchs. Unlike earlier times when kings shared power with feudal lords who influenced state decisions, absolute power now resided solely with the monarchs, while feudal lords, or hereditary provincial rulers, were transformed into nobles serving at the royal court. The pinnacle of absolute monarchy was exemplified by the Bourbon dynasty in France, particularly under Louis XIV (reigned 1643-1715), and the Tudor dynasty in England, notably Henry VIII (reigned 1509-1547) and Elizabeth I (reigned 1558-1603). Absolutism enabled central authorities to streamline state administration, build powerful armies, levy substantial taxes, manage large-scale projects, and reform education and economic sectors, while dismantling social institutions that previously constrained arbitrary rule. Major political upheavals in Europe during this period included the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), the English Revolution and Civil War (1649-1658), and the French Revolution (1789-1799).

Against the backdrop of absolutism, great empires expanded by absorbing weaker neighbors: Spain, Austria, France, and England. The great geographical discoveries and the growth of European empires spurred colonization, a monumental cultural phenomenon. Colonization led to the spread of European languages, religions, and cultures across all continents. Today, English, Spanish, and French are spoken in Africa, the Americas, India, and Australia, where these continents' borders were shaped by colonial administrations, and their peoples benefit from European cultural advancements. Colonies also influenced the metropolises, attracting European scholars.

In economics, capitalism evolved, representing not just an economic but a cultural phenomenon. The driving force of economic progress shifted from landowners to entrepreneurs, with capital now defined by money, factories, and ships rather than land. Colonies supplied raw materials to European industries, while banking developments supported entrepreneurship. The Modern Age was a period of scientific and technological revolution, marked by significant discoveries. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) formulated the law of universal gravitation, revolutionizing physics. Important breakthroughs were also made in chemistry, biology, and other natural sciences. Simultaneously, crucial technological innovations emerged, including electricity, the internal combustion engine, locomotives, and steam engines. The humanities advanced as well, with the Enlightenment sweeping across Europe in the 18th century, where thinkers aimed to enlighten all people and achieve freedom and happiness through education. The Enlightenment reached its zenith in England, France, and Germany.

In art, the Modern Age introduced several styles. Dominating the 16th to 18th centuries was the Baroque style, named after the Portuguese term "perola barroca" (irregularly shaped pearl). Baroque art was characterized by its grandeur, magnificence, artistic opulence, and perfection. Buildings were adorned with elaborate sculptures and decor; literature showcased ornate prose; and music was known for its sophistication. This was an era when Europe dominated the world, spreading culture and science across continents, reflecting Europe's grandeur through its artistic forms. A central theme of Baroque art was the dissemination of education. Since Jesuit monks primarily pursued this goal, Baroque art is also referred to as Jesuit style in Western literature. Jesuits spread Baroque art worldwide through their missionary and educational efforts, and it played a significant role in Ukrainian culture as well.

In the 16th and 17th centuries, Classicism emerged as an artistic style characterized by a departure from the Baroque standards of beauty. While Baroque art was marked by opulence and grandeur, Classicism rejected these excesses in favor of precise and rational forms. Classicists championed symmetry, correctness, and balance. They drew inspiration from Antiquity, particularly the aesthetic principles articulated by Aristotle in his Poetics. Classicism coincided with the rise of major philosophical systems and rationalism, where everything was subordinated to reason. These philosophical principles of rationalism found their expression in the art of Classicism. Architecture of this period was distinguished by symmetry, austerity, and the use of columns. A notable example of Classicism is the French garden, which adorned many palaces of the time. It features a rigorously planned layout with evenly trimmed shrubs and symmetrical trees.

At the dawn of the 19th century, European culture was overtaken by Romanticism. Whereas Classicism originated in France and was primarily expressed through architecture, Romanticism began in Germany and was predominantly reflected in literature. Romantic writers were characterized by their sentimental fascination with the past, especially the Baroque period, and their focus on rural themes. For example, the works of Taras Shevchenko reflect an admiration for the Cossack era (Baroque) and dedicate themselves to the rural life. Romantics celebrated national culture and believed it was best preserved in the countryside, untainted by urbanization. Consequently, they collected folklore, folk songs, ballads, and poetry. Linguistics also flourished, as language was seen as the greatest expression of national spirit. A significant theme in the art of this era was the depiction of untamed nature, receiving more attention from Romantics than from writers of any other period. While Classicist artists portrayed ancient subjects or heroes, Romantics focused on the village, peasants, and nature. Their favored motifs included roads or rivers that seemed endless. If the symbol of Classicism was the orderly and symmetrical French garden, the symbol of Romanticism became the English garden, characterized by its wild, untamed plantings untouched by human hands. For Romantics, beauty lay in the natural.

In the mid-19th century, Realism emerged as a new artistic direction. Proponents of Realism contrasted themselves with both Classicism, which idealized the rational but removed from real life, and Romanticism, which glorified an idealized past and the romanticized peasant. Realists sought to place the real human experience at the center of culture. This was a time of rapid urbanization, industrial development, and migration; a time when real people had to find themselves in new realities, without the luxury of Classicist rationality or Romantic sentimentalism. An example of Realism is Charles Dickens's Oliver Twist. Oliver is neither a Classicist nor a Romantic; he is an unfortunate child struggling to survive in a city where he is unwanted. Marko Vovchok's The Governess is also a story set in the city. While the cultural center for Classicists was the palace and for Romantics the village, Realists turned their attention to the city in all its aspects, focusing on factories where real life was concentrated.

In the 1860s, another artistic movement emerged—Impressionism, primarily manifested in painting. The term derives from the French word "impression," meaning "impression." Unlike Classicists, Romantics, and Realists who focused on the external, Impressionist artists were intrigued by the internal world of the human experience. They were more concerned with how people perceive the world and the impressions that external stimuli evoke in the human soul. While previous artists sought to describe reality, albeit with changing conventions, Impressionists were indifferent to how accurately they depicted reality. They were interested in capturing the precise sensations evoked by reality. Portraits, still lifes, and landscapes became popular. Although Impressionism began in the 19th century, it fully developed in the 20th century. Notable Impressionist artists include Édouard Manet (1832-1883), Camille Pissarro (1830-1903), Alfred Sisley (1839-1899), and Oscar-Claude Monet (1840-1929).