Philosophy of Society

Philosophy of Culture

The Middle Ages

The dissolution of the Roman Empire and the fall of the Western Roman Empire marked the end of Antiquity. The builders of the new culture were the peoples whom the Greeks and Romans deemed barbarians—the Germans and Slavs. They inherited Christianity from Antiquity, which became the foundation of subsequent cultural epochs. This new era is called the "Middle Ages," although this term emerged only at the end of the period. The boundaries of the Middle Ages are somewhat blurred, but traditionally, it is dated from 476 CE (the fall of the Western Roman Empire) to 1453 CE (the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire). During this time, the Germans and Slavs took possession of their territories and began to develop their own cultures. They established a new type of state based on feudal relationships: people were organized into small districts led by barons, several barons formed a larger district led by counts, counts grouped into even larger districts led by dukes, and dukes united into a kingdom ruled by a king. A baron was a vassal to a count, while a count was the suzerain to the baron; similarly, a count was a vassal to a duke, and a duke was the suzerain to the count. The vassal was obligated to pay tribute and support the army of the suzerain but also enjoyed protection. As the landholdings were called fiefs, this system of relations was termed feudalism.

Gradually, among the peoples of Western Europe, the Franks began to occupy a prominent place. By conquering other peoples, they established a vast state that became the center of Western European medieval culture. The history of the Frankish state is divided into three periods, each representing a distinct cultural epoch with its own artistic style. From the earliest days of Frankish history until 751 CE, the Merovingian dynasty ruled as their kings. The Merovingian era marks the first period of Frankish history. Notable events of their rule include the adoption of Catholicism in 498 CE under King Clovis I and the Battle of Poitiers (or Tours) in 732 CE, which saved Europe from Arab invasion. Following the fall of the Merovingians, the Carolingian dynasty ascended to power in 751 CE with Pepin the Short becoming king. In 800 CE, Pope Leo III crowned his son Charlemagne as Emperor of the Romans. After the death of Charlemagne’s son Louis the Pious in 840 CE, the empire was divided among Louis’s three sons. In art, especially architecture, the Merovingian and Carolingian periods were marked by the pre-Romanesque style. This was a time when the Franks and other peoples were beginning to build their first cities, though they lacked established architectural traditions. Major buildings (churches, monasteries, palaces) were constructed in a style similar to Roman basilicas, featuring rectangular structures with columns inside. During this time, the first schools, created by the Church, were established, and books were copied by hand. The culture of this period was a blend of Roman traditions and traditional Germanic elements, subordinated to a Christian worldview.

Around the year 1000 CE, Romanesque architecture emerged in Western Europe, prevailing until approximately 1300 CE. This style was named by French scholars Charles de Gerville and Arsène de Comon in 1820. This period was marked by the fragmentation of Western Europe and constant warfare, which influenced the style’s characteristics. Romanesque churches resembled fortresses: they featured thick walls, narrow windows that could serve as loopholes, sturdy columns, and robust doors, all designed to allow churches to be used as defensive fortifications if needed. Despite this, churches retained the form of Roman basilicas, justifying the style's name. Churches began to be adorned with frescoes, reliefs, and statues.

In the 12th to 16th centuries, a new artistic style—Gothic—dominated Western European culture. The name Gothic was coined by Renaissance artists who disparaged the Middle Ages and regarded this style as barbaric. The Goths, a Germanic tribe that conquered Rome, were considered a symbol of barbarism during the Renaissance. However, Gothic is one of the most beautiful artistic styles in European cultural history. Gothic churches are impressive structures: tall, like arrows reaching from Earth to Heaven, beautifully adorned and majestic. The creators of this style aimed to depict the prayer ascending from humans to God and the light descending from God to humans. Notable examples of Gothic architecture include Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris, Cologne Cathedral, and Reims Cathedral, representing some of the most magnificent buildings in Europe.

The knight symbolized medieval culture, characterized by nobility, bravery, chivalry, piety, duty, and romanticism. The Catholic Church was the creator of Western European medieval culture. Europe owes its cultural development to the Church, which established schools and the first universities, copied and disseminated books, shaped legal traditions, nurtured moral values, created the first hospitals, fostered the arts, acted as an arbiter in international conflicts, and contributed to the formation of international law. There are no aspects of medieval culture that are not connected to the Church. Without the active role of the Catholic Church during the Middle Ages, Europe would not have achieved its civilizational breakthrough.