Philosophy of Society

Philosophy of Culture

Early Theories of Culture

At the heart of the philosophy of culture lies the distinction between the natural and spiritual realms of human existence. Humans inhabit a specific territory, breathe the air, consume food and drink, and experience the climate's effects. This constitutes the natural world, which is given to humanity as a fundamental basis for the development of its inherent human potentials. Concurrently, humans engage in language, create art, practice religion, and develop philosophy and science—activities that belong to a wholly different sphere of human life and endeavor. This sphere is known as culture and requires distinct philosophical contemplation. Efforts to philosophically understand culture within the framework of other philosophical disciplines have existed since philosophy's inception. In modern times, several philosophical theories emerged, wherein their creators sought to conceptualize culture as a comprehensive entity in contrast to nature.

The Italian scholar Giambattista Vico (1668-1744) was a pioneer in the philosophy of culture. He aimed to explain the origins and development of human culture. Vico posited that the beginning and principles of cultural development were embedded in divine providence. God created humans as inherently good and noble, with souls inclined toward goodness, mercy, and love. However, humanity's sin marred this goodness within their hearts. God did not abandon humanity; He chose the Jewish people through whom He acted throughout history to offer salvation to all humanity. Thus, the Jews, through divine guidance, preserved humanity, whereas other nations lost their human essence, becoming almost akin to wild animals. Nevertheless, even these barbaric peoples did not lack divine assistance. They preserved their religious intuition, which enabled them to establish their own religions. Though these religions were far from perfection, they laid the groundwork for cultural development. Through religion, human culture witnessed the emergence of morality and law, as moral and legal principles originated as God's Law; art, since the first artistic creations were religious in nature; and philosophy and science, as religion motivated people to understand God and His creations. Without religion, Vico believed, culture would not have emerged, and humanity would have remained in barbarism. Culture advanced humans to such a level of civilization that they could embrace divine revelation provided through the Jewish people. Thus, through divine providence acting primarily through religion, humans were able to build and continually refine culture, enhancing social and political institutions, legislation, and art with each generation. However, this process is not eternal. Humanity remains affected by sin, which has undermined its original perfection. This sin disrupts human culture when it reaches the peak of its development, leading people back into barbarism and necessitating a new beginning in their civilizational journey. Vico thus formulated a cyclical theory of culture, suggesting that humanity constantly oscillates between barbarism and civilization, only to return to barbarism and then commence a new ascent to civilization. This concept was further developed in the 19th and 20th centuries by Oswald Spengler and Arnold Toynbee, leaving a lasting mark on the philosophy of history through their cyclical theories.

The Swiss-French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) operated at the twilight of French Enlightenment creativity. Rousseau contrasted nature and culture, assigning distinct roles to each in human development. Through this opposition, Rousseau elevated culture to a separate subject of philosophical reflection. While Enlightenment thinkers saw immense creative potential in culture, Rousseau critiqued it. In 1749, the Dijon Academy announced an essay competition on the topic, "Has the revival of the sciences and arts contributed to the improvement of morals?" Rousseau answered negatively. He believed that humans initially lived in a natural state, where they were happy, sincere, and good. However, at a certain point, they began to create civilization, revealing all the negative aspects of human nature. Culture allowed people to realize their evil traits. Rousseau asserted, "Everything is good as it comes from the hands of the Creator, and everything degenerates in the hands of man." The worst distinction between nature and culture, according to Rousseau, is the inequality among people. He argued that "all men are born equal," implying that by nature, people are equal. In culture, they become differentiated: rich and poor, strong and weak, successful and unsuccessful. These distinctions cause suffering for some and fear of losing status for others. Returning to the natural state is impossible, as transcending culture is unattainable. The only goal people can achieve is to live as naturally as possible within the bounds of culture.

The German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) analyzed human culture, likening it to the development of an organism. Just as an organism undergoes stages of infancy, youth, maturity, and old age, human culture experiences the same phases, as it is driven by a spirit. The goal of human cultural development is to attain perfect humanity. Herder paid particular attention to national cultures. He asserted that the only social institution stemming from human nature is the family. As individuals advance their culture, they lose their natural instincts, becoming deprived beings. They must compensate for this deprivation. The only means of compensation is social institutions, particularly the state. Its task is to protect individuals and provide them with opportunities for realization. This is only possible when the state is organic, which occurs when it closely resembles a family. An organic state is one that has matured based on national traditions, with literature being their most vivid expression, to which Herder devoted significant attention.