Philosophy of Society

Philosophy of Culture

Antiquity

The peoples who settled the southern regions of Europe during the Iron Age gave rise to European culture, which evolved through several distinct periods. The earliest of these was Antiquity. This term derives from the Latin word "antiquus" (ancient). However, in the history of culture, it has become customary to refer to as "Antiquity" not all ancient cultures, but specifically those that developed in Southern Europe, namely Greek, Etruscan, and Roman cultures. Antiquity lasted from the establishment of the Greek city-states (around 800 BCE) to the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 CE). Generally, the history of Ancient Greece is divided into five periods:

• The Aegean or Minoan-Mycenaean period spanned the 3rd to 2nd millennia BCE. This era marked the emergence of the first settlements along the Aegean Sea. The period's name originates from the Aegean Sea and from the regions where the earliest settlements in this area were discovered: Heinrich Schliemann uncovered Mycenae in 1876, and Arthur Evans found Crete in 1899. The Aegean culture persisted through the Bronze Age and thus does not fall within Antiquity.
• The Homeric period, which lasted from the 11th to 9th centuries BCE, takes its name from the Greek poet Homer, whose works are among the few descriptions of this time. This period saw the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age, including the fall of Troy and other Bronze Age cultures. During the Homeric period, tribes such as the Achaeans, Ionians, Dorians, and Aeolians arrived in Anatolia, the Balkans, and the Aegean islands, forming the Greek people.
• The Archaic period extended from the 8th to the 6th centuries BCE and belonged to the Iron Age, representing the first period of ancient culture. During this time, the proto-Greek tribes—Achaeans, Ionians, Dorians, and Aeolians—began to build their civilization. Rather than creating a large empire, the Greeks established small settlements called city-states (πόλις - polis), each with its customs and its own ruler. Greeks settled and built their city-states along the entire Northern Mediterranean from Anatolia (Turkey) to Iberia (Spain). This period saw a flourishing Greek culture with the development of architecture and sculpture, the refinement of writing, and the emergence of rich literature and mythology. Notable Greek poets Homer and Hesiod were active during this time, as well as the "Seven Wise Men" (including the legislator Pittacus, the Athenian politician and lawmaker Solon, the politician and author of maxims Cleobulus, the judge Bias, the sage Myson, the first known philosopher Thales, and the Spartan politician and poet Chilon), who made significant contributions to Greek culture. A monumental achievement of this era was the emergence of Greek philosophy, coinciding with the activities of the pre-Socratic philosophers.
• The Classical period spanned the 5th to 4th centuries BCE and was a time of the highest development of Greek culture. The economic progress of the Greek city-states reached great heights, leading to political changes: most city-states abandoned monarchy in favor of republican governance. Two centers of Greek culture and politics gradually emerged: Athens and Sparta. Democracy flourished in Athens, while a military dictatorship prevailed in Sparta. At the beginning of the 5th century, the Greco-Persian Wars unfolded, culminating in the Battle of Marathon in 490 BCE and the victory of Athens. Following the war, several Greek city-states, led by Athens, formed the Delian League, which ensured Athenian dominance in the Greek world. However, Sparta opposed this dominance, leading to the Peloponnesian War in 431 BCE, in which Sparta defeated Athens. This event marked the decline of both Athens and Sparta. Ultimately, the Macedonian king Philip conquered Athens and numerous other city-states, and his son Alexander III conquered Persia, ending the Classical Antiquity. Despite its tragic end, Athens left a significant mark on history during this period. Architecture and sculpture reached their pinnacle, exemplified by the magnificent temple complex of the Athenian Acropolis. In literature and theater, eminent playwrights Aeschylus (525-456 BCE), Sophocles (497-406 BCE), and Euripides (480-406 BCE) thrived. The period was extraordinarily productive for philosophy, giving rise to classical Greek philosophy through Socrates, the Socratic schools, Plato, and Aristotle. The zenith of Athenian democracy and political institutions was achieved during the rule of Pericles (495-429 BCE).
• The Hellenistic or Late Antique period extended from the late 4th century BCE to the end of Antiquity. During this time, ancient culture experienced profound transformations. The conquests of Alexander the Great, followed by the Roman Empire, incorporated Greek city-states into a vast empire. Monarchy replaced democracy. The enormous empire united numerous peoples, initiating the first globalization in human history, characterized by worldwide cultural, religious, economic, and linguistic unification. Through population migrations within the empire, people encountered different religions, cultures, customs, and worldviews, realizing that they were not alone on the planet. This cultural diversity prompted the search for answers to the question of which culture was true, resulting in two main responses: some argued that no culture was based on eternal truths, but rather on human inventions (skepticism), while others believed that each culture contained a portion of truth (eclecticism). Since Greek language and civilization became the foundation for the culture of the Near East and the Mediterranean, and "Greek" in Greek is "ελληνικά" (Hellenic), the culture of this period is termed Hellenism. The peak of the Roman Empire, driven by military strength and the precision of Roman law, increased the social roles of soldiers and jurists. The center of world civilization shifted from Greece to Rome, Latin became the language of general communication, and Roman literature and art set the course for future human development. The final centuries of Antiquity were marked by the spread of Christianity.