Philosophy of Being and Knowledge

Metaphysics (Philosophy of Being)

The History of Metaphysics

The primary question of metaphysics can be framed as follows: what does it mean "to be"? In everyday language, the verb "to be" is used in two distinct ways. The first way is in sentences that assert the existence of something. For example, in the sentences "The house is," or "The state is," something is affirmed to exist, but nothing is said about what it is. The second way is in sentences that describe something about something. For instance, in "Kyiv is the capital of Ukraine," or "Metaphysics is the science of being," certain properties or relations of the subject are revealed, but nothing is said about its existence. If the verb "to be" is used in two senses, then being must be considered in two different contexts:

• In the first sense, it refers to the existence of something, as in "The house is." Being in this sense is referred to in Ukrainian as "existence," and in Latin as existentia. Affirming the existence of something reveals that something is, but says nothing about what it is.
• In the second sense, it pertains to the essence of something, as in "Kyiv is the capital of Ukraine." This sentence does not address whether Kyiv exists; it only reveals what Kyiv is. Being in this sense is called "essence" in Ukrainian, and essentia in Latin. Any statement that reveals the essence of something is a definition; there is no other way to reveal essence except through logical definition. Every possible definition has the same structure. For instance, in the statement "A rhombus is an equilateral quadrilateral," the essence of the rhombus is elucidated. To reveal essence, one must outline its elements. There are three elements of essence. An element of essence is a specific block of information contained in a definition that can be replaced without affecting the other blocks of information.

✵ In the statement "A rhombus is an equilateral quadrilateral," it is affirmed that a rhombus is a quadrilateral, meaning the concept of "rhombus" is included within the broader concept of "quadrilateral." Thus, the first element of essence is the class to which the thing belongs, the essence of which is being defined.

✵ In the statement "A rhombus is an equilateral quadrilateral," it is also affirmed that a rhombus is equilateral, indicating the traits that distinguish a rhombus from all other quadrilaterals. Hence, the second element of essence is the specific features that differentiate the thing from all other members of its class.

✵ The statement also asserts that a rhombus is an equilateral quadrilateral, pointing to the relationship of the concept with its genus and specific features. Therefore, the third element of essence is the connection of the thing with its generic concept and specific features.

Each of these three elements of essence can be replaced with another so that the other elements of essence in the statement remain unchanged, but changing any of the elements will alter the truth value of the statement. For example, if any element of the statement "A rhombus is an equilateral quadrilateral" is replaced, the statement becomes false. If the first element is replaced, it results in "A rhombus is an equilateral triangle"; if the second is replaced, the statement reads, "A rhombus is a non-equilateral quadrilateral"; if the third is replaced, the statement becomes "A rhombus is not an equilateral quadrilateral." In all three cases, the statement is false. This means that all three elements of essence are necessary; essence is only revealed when all three of its elements align.

Existence and essence do not always coincide; they are independent of each other. For example, everyone knows what a "perpetual motion machine" is and can explain that a perpetual motion machine is an ideal engine designed so that, once started, it will operate continuously without requiring additional energy input. This definition of a perpetual motion machine is found in most encyclopedias. If it is possible to define what a perpetual motion machine is, it means that this thing has some essence. However, this does not mean that a perpetual motion machine exists. Another example is geometric figures. Mathematics deals with figures regardless of whether things with such shapes exist. The goal of most scientific inquiries is to complement essence with existence or existence with essence. For instance, when scientists discover something previously unobserved, they understand that it exists, but determining what it is requires effort. In this case, scientists are adding essence to existence. There are also cases where scientists attempt to complement essence with existence. Everyone knows what Atlantis is, meaning they can define its essence, but until it is found, that is, until its essence is supplemented by the proven fact of its existence, all accounts of Atlantis remain literary fiction.