Philosophy of Being and Knowledge

Metaphysics (Philosophy of Being)

Transcendentals

The analysis of the concept of essence raises a crucial metaphysical question: do there exist attributes of essence that are common to all that exists? In other words, are there characteristics inherent to everything? The importance of this question arises from the following reasoning: any form of knowledge aims to encompass all existence. This is only possible if there is something shared among all that exists. Two things can be studied using the same methods only if they share something in common. Since philosophy seeks to understand everything and apply the same methods across all aspects of existence, everything must possess some common traits. The most general characteristics of existence, the highest and most universal traits that define absolutely everything, are termed transcendentals.

Plato made the most successful attempt to identify transcendentals. He believed that all things are expressions of Ideas. However, Ideas are not equivalent; they exist within a certain hierarchy. For example, the Idea of color is more general than the Idea of red, being at a higher level of generality: all red things have color, but not all things with color are red. Nevertheless, the presence of color is not the most general Idea, as there are things or phenomena that have no color at all. Through generalization, Plato ascended to the highest Idea, that which is expressed in everything that exists. Plato identified the most general Idea as the Good, but he also asserted that it can be equated with unity, truth, and beauty. These four concepts have been recognized as transcendentals in philosophical tradition.

• Unity: Since every thing is a unity within itself, it can be described by a single concept. If things were not unities within themselves, they could not be known. Biology can study living organisms, and physics the properties of things because both living organisms and things are wholes in themselves. Were they not so, and if they disintegrated into their smallest components, the world would turn into chaos. The unity of things within themselves organizes reality and allows it to be understood by reason, which only comprehends order.
• Truth: Everything that exists is true. The problem of truth is one of the most significant topics in philosophical discourse. Truth is the correspondence between a thing and the mind. This classical definition of truth allows for two interpretations: the correspondence of the mind to the thing and the correspondence of the thing to the mind. The first interpretation reveals the truth of a thought: a thought is true if it corresponds to reality. For instance, the statement "A square has five angles" is false because it does not align with reality. This interpretation of truth is known as epistemological truth, studied by epistemology. The second interpretation concerns things: a thing is true if it corresponds to a thought or design. For example, a building is correctly constructed if it matches its design; if it is built contrary to the architect's plan or construction standards, it is flawed. This version of truth is known as ontological truth, which metaphysics studies. All things in the world are ontologically true. This means that there exists a certain rational standard to which all that exists conforms. If something deviates from this standard, it disintegrates. The task of science is to describe the designs according to which the world is created, and humans must adhere to them. For example, no one consciously protests against the law of universal gravitation; if someone violates it in their activities, the results will be disastrous.
• Good: All that exists is good; thus, reality does not self-destruct but is perfected. The universality of good elevates it to the level of a general standard. Everything is evaluated from the perspective of good. The problem of good, and especially human actions, is studied by moral philosophy.
• Beauty: Since everything that exists is good, it is also beautiful. As reality is beautiful, it inspires human spirit and makes art possible. The transcendental of beauty is studied by aesthetics.