Philosophy of Being and Knowledge

Philosophy of Science

The Emergence of Science and the Beginnings of the Philosophy of Science

What we now call science, without which modern humanity cannot imagine its existence, has not always been present. Modern science arose in the Early Modern period, and its foundations were laid during the Renaissance. This does not mean that prior to this era, humanity did not seek to understand the world. Glimmers of science have appeared since the dawn of human existence, for all forms of knowledge contain a measure of scientific inquiry. Yet, it was the Renaissance that established the principles upon which modern science is built.

During this time, European intellectuals were captivated by antiquity. In philosophy, there was a particular resurgence of interest in Platonism. Plato asserted that true being resides in ideas, while the material world is merely their expression. Between the realm of ideas and the material world, there exists an intermediary—numbers. Humanity, according to Plato, once dwelled in the world of ideas, contemplating pure essences. However, upon turning away from this contemplation, it fell into matter, forgetting the pure forms once seen. Yet, when encountering things crafted in the likeness of these ideas, humanity recalls the pure essences.

From these reflections, Renaissance philosophers derived the following theses, which became the cornerstones of science:

1. The material world is merely a reflection of ideas, which alone constitute true being. The task of humanity is to know true being, not the illusory—the ideas. Thus, theory is more important than experience. This allowed scholars to transcend mere empirical data and embrace creativity.
2. Experience, according to Plato, is essential because through it, people remember what they once beheld in the world of ideas. Renaissance thinkers concluded that while experience is necessary for science, it serves only to confirm and enrich theory. Experience, therefore, is subservient to theory.
3. Plato emphasized the value of mathematics. From this, Renaissance scientists inferred that God wrote the book of nature in the language of mathematics. The active use of mathematics became a foundation of modern science.

The significance of these three theses for science is vividly illustrated by the discovery of Uranus. The idea of the existence of a seventh planet in the solar system was first proposed by Immanuel Kant in 1755. Kant’s conjectures about the seventh planet were based on Newtonian theory, but in his time, they could not be empirically verified.

Drawing upon Kant’s speculations and calculations, the German-English astronomer William Herschel conducted observations and, 26 years after Kant’s theoretical explorations, identified Uranus. Had the scientific community of the time not valued theory over empirical facts, Kant’s conjectures would never have been taken seriously, for they lacked confirmation. Nor would the British government have funded Herschel’s observations. Had Herschel not been convinced that empirical data must serve theory, he would not have sought evidence for Kant’s ideas. Furthermore, if not for the reverence for mathematics, Kant would not have been able to make the necessary calculations and describe the planet Uranus.

Science, as shaped during the Renaissance, was a new achievement of European and world civilization. New methods of inquiry opened to humanity the potential for technological progress, the accumulation of wealth, and the extension and improvement of life. The significant role science came to play in human life attracted the attention of philosophers. The task of philosophy is to discern patterns and define the essences of things and phenomena. As science became a crucial aspect of human life, the need arose to define what science is and what laws govern its development.