Philosophy Of The Modern Age

The Problem of the Scientific Research Method in 17th-Century Philosophy

In the context of the debate concerning the nature and sources of reliable knowledge in the 17th century, two major philosophical currents emerged: empiricism and rationalism. Empiricism (from the Greek empeiria meaning experience) is a philosophical direction that focuses on empirical natural science, positing that experience, especially scientifically organized experience or experiment, serves as both the source of knowledge and the criterion of its truth. Rationalism (from the Latin ratio meaning reason), on the other hand, is a philosophical movement that emphasizes mathematics, viewing reason as the source of knowledge and the highest criterion of its truth. The most prominent representatives of these schools were the English philosopher Francis Bacon and the French philosopher René Descartes.

Francis Bacon (1561-1626), in his works "Novum Organum" and "The Great Restoration of the Sciences," advocated for the inductive method of research—an approach to scientific inquiry that moves from observations of particular phenomena to the formation of general ideas and laws, transitioning from judgments about individual facts to overarching judgments about them. Critiquing the scientific sterility of the scholastic speculative method of thought, he regarded induction as the optimal method of knowledge, as it “takes into account the data of sensations and grasps nature, directing itself toward practice.” Using allegory, Bacon asserted that one should not emulate either the rationalist "spider," which derives truth solely from reason and disregards facts, or the "ant" (empiricist), which collects everything that crosses its path (facts) without making generalizations; rather, one should follow the path of the bee, which not only gathers nectar—information—but also transforms it into honey—truth.

According to Bacon, experimental knowledge should pave the way for mastering the laws of nature, understanding causal relationships, and thereby ensuring humanity's dominion over nature. Bacon’s famous maxim was: "Knowledge is power." He distinguished between two types of knowledge: "fruitful," which provides immediate benefit, and "light-giving," which expands the possibilities of cognition.

Bacon's undeniable contribution also includes the development of a doctrine for cleansing the intellect of "idols," the illusions of the mind that hinder the movement of thought toward truth. He identified four types of such idols (phantoms), as illustrated in Table 10.

Table 10.

• Idols of the Tribe: General errors inherent in human perception and thinking, arising from the tendency to mix one’s own nature with the nature of things (for instance, the human desire to interpret nature by analogy with oneself).
• Idols of the Cave: Errors associated with individual peculiarities of people; each person views the world from their subjective inner world—as if from their own cave.
• Idols of the Marketplace: Illusions related to human communication, the misuse of language, and a lack of critical engagement with information.
• Idols of the Theater: Orientation toward authorities and false doctrines, which mislead us with their superficial perfection. Bacon proclaimed: “Truth is the daughter of time, not of authority.”

Thus, the significance of Bacon's philosophy lies in its critique of the observational approach to the world characteristic of prior philosophy, as well as in the formulation of the method of new empirical science. His philosophy became an embodiment of the spirit of experimental natural science.

The foundations of the alternative rationalist tradition to empiricism were laid by the French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes (1596-1650). The scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries led to the systematic application of mathematical methods in the natural sciences, with the characteristics of 17th-century rationalism being closely tied to the orientation toward mathematics as the ideal of scientific knowledge. 17th-century rationalism is marked by a faith in the omnipotence of reason and its capacity to achieve absolute truth.

For Descartes, as for Bacon, the necessity of reforming scientific thinking based on mastery of the correct method was paramount; however, he regarded reason, not experience, as the source of all knowledge. In his works "Meditations on First Philosophy" and "Principles of Philosophy," Descartes laid the groundwork for the deductive-rationalist method of cognition, positioning himself as the founder of philosophical rationalism. Understanding the world should be built on the basis of deduction, and to uncover truth through this process, one should adhere to the following rules: 1) accept as true that which is self-evident, perceived clearly and distinctly, and gives no reason for doubt; 2) the rule of analysis—divide each complex thing into simple components until reaching the self-evident; 3) the rule of synthesis—proceed from the elementary to the more complex; 4) the requirement of completeness in enumeration and systematization. As a model, he considered the process of mathematical proof from axiom to theorem; thus, for scientific explanations of facts, "all-encompassing mathematics" is necessary as the proper means of interpretation. In other words, Descartes saw the rational, logical attributes of reliable knowledge, its universality and necessity, embodied in mathematics and its axioms. Within our minds lie many ideas of high clarity. These ideas do not arise from experience but are derived from reason itself; thus, they are innate to it, explaining the effect of clarity and expressiveness, the efficacy of intellectual intuition—a peculiar inner vision inherent in our reason.

Addressing the problem of seeking evident truths that underpin all our knowledge, Descartes adopts a stance of radical skepticism that is methodological in nature, serving solely to arrive at absolutely certain truth. Any assertion regarding the world, God, and humanity, he contemplates, can be called into question. The only undeniable proposition is: "Cogito ergo sum"—"I think, therefore I am." This Descartes considers the starting point from which all other knowledge can be constructed.

The opposition of the methodological positions of Francis Bacon and René Descartes is reflected in Table 11.

Methodological Position of F. Bacon: Empiricism	Methodological Position of R. Descartes: Rationalism
Basis of knowledge: facts, experiment	Activity of the mind, intellectual intuition
Method of knowledge: induction	Deduction
Motto: "Knowledge is power"	"I think, therefore I exist"

Thus, the philosophy of the 17th century, evolving in dialogue with science, devoted significant attention to the exploration of the method of true knowledge to enhance the reliability and effectiveness of science.

In addition to this central issue, philosophers of the period examined other important questions. For instance, the Dutch thinker Benedict Spinoza (1631-1677) emphasizes not the method of searching for truth but rather a system of knowledge about the world. His primary focus is ethical issues, encapsulated in his principal work, "Ethics." Spinoza's worldview, in its relation to God, fate, necessity, and death, is somewhat akin to Stoic teachings. Since nothing can make a person immortal, it is futile to squander time on fears and lamentations regarding this matter. To suffer from the fear of death is a form of slavery. Such principles of behavior emerge from Spinoza's doctrine of absolute necessity prevailing in the world, whereby human will is incapable of altering anything. He believed that one can only comprehend the course of the cosmic process to align one’s life with it, reaching a state where one neither weeps nor rejoices but understands the necessity and transient nature of life’s vicissitudes. Spinoza logically substantiates the thesis that freedom is an aware necessity.

Continuing the traditions of pantheism, Spinoza makes the unity of God and Nature the central tenet of his worldview, which he considers the sole eternal and infinite substance. It is causa sui, that is, the cause of itself. Thus, for Spinoza, nature is created, coinciding with the nature that creates. The entire universe presents itself as a holistic system governed by causal necessity.

The question of humanity was also addressed by the French philosopher and mathematician Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), but from a methodological standpoint that diverges sharply from that of Spinoza. Pascal became disillusioned with the principles of rationalism and pointedly questioned the limits of science, noting that "the heart has its reasons which reason knows not." In this way, he became a precursor to the irrationalist tendencies in philosophy that would later find vibrant expression in existentialism. In his writings, particularly in "Thoughts," Pascal articulates the tragic and fragile nature of human existence, which is perpetually engulfed in anxiety and despair in the face of the silence of the boundless cosmos. Consequently, he posits that the state of humanity is one of instability, longing, and unease. At the same time, Pascal asserts the thesis of human dignity, which lies in the capacity for thought: "Man is a thinking reed."

It is worth noting that the philosophers of the 17th century also focused on the investigation of social processes and the significant social institution of the state. These issues were most fruitfully developed by the renowned English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) in his work "Leviathan." Hobbes endeavored to explain the origins and functions of the state, rooted in the necessity of transitioning from the so-called "natural state" to civilized society. By "natural," he refers to the pre-social condition, where there was an incessant war of all against all among men. The resolution to this predicament came in the form of a "social contract," wherein citizens voluntarily relinquished a portion of their rights to a specially created "great Leviathan"—the state (Leviathan being a monstrous entity). Although Hobbes advocated for an absolutist state authority, his conception of society is profoundly democratic, as it is based on the equality of all individuals as the foundational principle of contractual relationships. Through his framework, Hobbes laid the groundwork for modern European thought on society. His ideas significantly influenced prominent figures of the French Enlightenment—Rousseau and Voltaire—affecting French materialism of the 18th century and contributing to the theoretical formulation of bourgeois liberalism.