Glossary

"Thing in itself" and "thing for us" - philosophical terms denoting: the former refers to things as they exist independently of us and our knowledge; the latter refers to things as they are revealed to humanity in the process of cognition. These terms gained particular significance in the eighteenth century due to the denial of the possibility of knowing "things in themselves" in the philosophical views of John Locke and Immanuel Kant.

Absolute (from Latin absolutus - unconditional, unlimited) - that which is independent of anything else, the unconditioned; the eternal, infinite primal foundation of the world, for example, the "absolute idea."

Abstraction (from Latin abstrakto - to separate) - one of the moments of knowledge, involving the mental separation and highlighting of particular aspects, properties, and relations of specific objects of cognition as independent entities.

Affect (from Latin affectus - agitation, passion) - a strong yet fleeting emotional experience.

Agnosticism (from Greek - unknowable) - a philosophical doctrine that denies the possibility of knowing the essence of things and the laws governing the development of reality.

Alienation - a concept characterizing, firstly, the process and results of transforming the products of human activity (both practical and theoretical) into something independent of humanity that dominates over it; secondly, the transformation of any phenomena and relations into something other than what they are in themselves, distorting in the minds of people their real life relations.

Alogism - reasoning that violates the laws of logical thought; illogicality in general, leading to ambiguity, contradiction, and lack of evidence, thus excluding the possibility of knowing the truth.

Altruism (from Latin alter - other) - a moral principle that embodies selfless striving for actions that benefit others.

Analogy (from Greek analogia - correspondence, similarity) - a form of reasoning where a conclusion about the possible similarity of objects is drawn based on their resemblance in certain aspects.

Anamnesis (from Greek anamnesis - recollection) - a term from Platonic philosophy that signifies a state of the human soul recalling what it has witnessed in the otherworldly realm.

Antagonism (from Greek antagonisma - dispute, struggle) - one form of contradiction characterized by a sharp, irreconcilable struggle between conflicting forces and tendencies.

Anthropocentrism (from Greek anthropos - human and Latin centrum - center) - one of the philosophical and worldview principles, according to which humans are placed at the center of the world, viewed as creative subjects playing a key role in the cognition and transformation of the world.

Anthropogenesis (from Greek anthropos - human and genesis - origin) - the historical-evolutionary process of the emergence and development of humans as social beings, associated with the formation and development of their primitive labor activities, consciousness, and language.

Anthropomorphism (from Greek anthropos - human and morphe - shape, form) - attributing the appearance and physical characteristics of a human to objects of nature, celestial bodies, animals, as well as supernatural beings (spirits, gods).

Antinomy (from Greek antinomia - contradiction in law) - a contradiction between two statements, each of which is equally logically established within a particular system.

Antithesis (from Greek antithesis - opposition, contradiction) - in logic, a judgment that contradicts a thesis; in the philosophy of Hegel, the second of the three stages of the triad.

Apathy (from Greek a - negation, pathos - passion) - a state of indifference, a lack of motivation for any action; in the ethical doctrine of the Stoics, apathy is understood as dispassion, mental stability, a condition where emotions do not hinder the functioning of reason.

Aporia (from Greek aporia - impasse) - a difficulty in resolving a problem associated with the contradiction between observed data and attempts at their mental analysis.

Apriori (from Latin apriori - from the previous) - a philosophical concept denoting knowledge that precedes experience.

Archetype (from Greek arche - beginning and typos - model) - in analytical psychology, a term referring to "primordial representations" or "universal forms of thought"; the collective unconscious - the memory of generations formed during times when our ancestors experienced similar events.

Asceticism (from Greek asketes - learned, fighter) - the renunciation of life's pleasures, hermitism, mortification of the flesh for the sake of achieving moral perfection.

Ataraxia (from Greek ataraxia - agitation, serenity) - a concept from ancient Greek ethics concerning peace of mind as a goal and a mode of behavior towards which humans should aspire.

Attribute (from Latin attributio - I attribute, endow) - a necessary, essential, and inseparable property of an object or phenomenon, without which they lack their definition and cannot either exist or be conceived.

Axiology (from Greek axios - value and logos - doctrine) - the philosophical doctrine concerning values.

Being - a key concept in philosophical ontology, associated with the search for the primal foundations or causes of the world.

Cartesianism refers to the teachings of the French philosopher and mathematician R. Descartes (from the Latinized name "Carthesius," hence the designation).

Categorical Imperative (from Latin imperativus, meaning "command") is a term introduced by Kant to denote the unconditional mandate of moral consciousness to align one's behavior with laws; the condition of the categorical imperative is freedom of will.

Category (from Greek kategoria, meaning "statement; primary and general attribute") is a universal form of thought and consciousness that reflects the general properties and relations of objective reality, embodying the universal regularity of the development of all material, natural, and spiritual phenomena.

Cognitive subject - a conscious being that engages in cognition; the subject may be an individual person or a group of individuals engaged in research; the capabilities of the cognitive subject are determined not only by individual-personal and collective resources but also by the specific historical context of the culture and society in which it exists.

Conformism (from Latin conformis, meaning "similar, corresponding") denotes a passive, adaptive acceptance of established behavioral standards, an unreserved acknowledgment of existing orders, norms, and rules of coexistence.

Consciousness - an inherent way for humans to relate to the world through society, a developed system of knowledge codified in language, encompassing all its meanings and significances; the highest form of the reflection of matter.

Conventionalism (from Latin conventio, meaning "agreement, contract") is a philosophical concept positing that scientific theories and concepts do not reflect the objective world but are the outcomes of arbitrary agreements or conventions among scientists, established according to principles of "convenience" and "economy of thought."

Creationism (from Latin creatio, meaning "creation") is the doctrine of the world's creation, encompassing both living and non-living nature, in a singular creative act.

Criterion (from Greek kriterion, meaning "measure for assessing something") serves as a standard for the reliability of human knowledge, reflecting its correspondence to objective reality.

Deduction (from the Latin deductio - leading down) is a logical method characterized by reasoning that moves from general premises (principles, axioms) to particular conclusions; it is a method of investigation where the particular is understood based on knowledge of the general law.

Definition (from the Latin definitio - definition) is a logical explanation of the content of a particular concept.

Deism (from the Latin deus - God) is a philosophical doctrine asserting that God is the first cause of the world but thereafter does not intervene in the course of natural and social processes.

Demiurge (from the Greek demiurgos - craftsman, creator) in idealist philosophy refers to the creative principle, the creator of the Universe; in theology, it signifies God.

Determinism (from the Latin determinatio - determination, limitation) is a philosophical doctrine that posits the universal objective conditioning of phenomena in nature, society, and human will.

Dialectics (from the Greek dialektike - the art of conversation, polemics) in Ancient Greece referred to the art of debate, a logical method for establishing truth by revealing and overcoming contradictions in an opponent's assertions; in contemporary understanding, it refers to: a) an objective process of development of phenomena based on the emergence, conflict, and resolution of inherent contradictions; b) a philosophical science concerning the universal laws of motion and development in nature, society, and thought.

Dichotomy (from the Greek dichotomia - division into two) is a type of division of concepts wherein two specific concepts are distinguished, with one concept incorporating a characteristic that negates the corresponding characteristic of the other.

Dignity - a unique moral relation of a person to themselves, manifested in the recognition of their intrinsic worth and moral equality with others.

Dogmatism (from the Greek dogma - opinion, doctrine, position) is uncritical, vacuous thinking based on templates, relying on ready-made, permanently established formulas; it is a manner of assimilating and applying knowledge where a certain doctrine or principle is accepted as a finished eternal truth, representing blind faith in authorities.

Dualism (from the Latin dualis - dual) is a philosophical doctrine asserting that spirit and matter, the ideal and the material, are two independent principles that do not condition one another.

Eclecticism (from the Greek ekleido - I choose) is characterized by 1) a mechanical combination of heterogeneous, organically incompatible elements within a single doctrine, which are borrowed without principle from opposing concepts; 2) a trend in ancient philosophy from the 2nd century B.C. to the 2nd century A.D., marked by the combination of elements from various philosophical systems and a tendency to diminish the differences between teachings and schools.

Egalitarianism (from French - equality) is a type of utopian socialism advocating for the principle of equal distribution of the means of production among small private owners and organizing production based on individual farming.

Egocentrism (from the Latin ego - I and centrum - center) is 1) a philosophical and ethical principle considering the individual, the personality, as the center of the universe; 2) a negative, pathological trait of character manifested in extreme individualism and egoism.

Egoism (from the Latin ego - I) is a moral-ethical principle denoting behavior where an individual, seeking to satisfy solely their own interests, disregards the interests of society and others.

Empathy (from the Greek empatheia - shared suffering) is a non-rational understanding by an individual of the inner spiritual world of others, based on shared emotions.

Empiricism (from Greek empeiria - experience) is a direction in epistemology which, in contrast to rationalism, regards sensory experience as the sole source and criterion of knowledge.

Entelchy (from the Greek enteles - complete, realized, and echo - I have) in Aristotle's philosophy denotes the internal aim of movement, latent in every being until its realization; it is the active, formative principle.

Epistemology (from Greek gnosis - knowledge and logos - doctrine) - a branch of philosophical knowledge that studies the nature of cognition and the possibilities for humans to know the world and themselves.

Epistemology (from the Greek episteme - certain scientific knowledge and logos - doctrine) is the theory of scientific knowledge; the term "epistemology" emerged in the early 20th century to denote the philosophical analysis of science.

Eschatology (from the Greek eschatos - last, ultimate, and logos - doctrine) is a religious teaching about the ultimate fate of the world and humanity.

Eudaimonism (from the Greek eudaimonia - happiness, bliss) is an ethical principle (akin to hedonism) asserting that the foundation of morality lies in humanity's pursuit of happiness: personal - individualistic eudaimonism, or social - social eudaimonism.

Eugenics (from the Greek eugenes - well-born) is the science that studies and develops methods for the active influence on the evolution of humanity, aiming to improve its nature.

Existence (from the Latin ex(s)istentia - existence) is a fundamental category of existentialism, signifying the internal being of a person, the unknowable, irrational aspect of the human "I," which results in the individual being a concrete, unique personality; the term "existence" was first employed by Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard.

Falsification (from Latin falsificatus - falsified) - a method of verifying scientific results (hypotheses, theories, ideas) through the refutation of contradictory propositions.

Fatalism (from Latin fatalis - predetermined by fate) - the recognition of the dominance over society and humanity of inexorable forces that predetermine their destinies.

Free will - one aspect of freedom that reveals the capacity of individuals to make decisions with knowledge of the situation, exercising control over themselves.

Freedom - a distinctive ability of human beings to engage in active endeavors according to their intentions, desires, and interests, through which they achieve the goals they set for themselves.

Futurology (from Latin futurum - future and logos - doctrine) - a field of scientific knowledge encompassing the prospects for the development of social processes: a doctrine about the future.

Genesis (from Greek genesis - origin, birth) - a concept expressing both the moment of origin and emergence of objects and phenomena, as well as the process of their necessary development.

Good - a concept denoting everything that holds positive significance for a person; goods are classified into material and spiritual categories.

Happiness - a state of profound inner satisfaction with the conditions of one’s existence and the meaningfulness of life, achieved through the realization of one’s human purpose.

Hedonism (from Greek hedone - pleasure, satisfaction) - a philosophical-ethical doctrine that posits pleasure as the highest good and purpose of human life.

Hermeneutics (from Greek hermeneutikos - the art of interpretation) - in classical philology, the doctrine concerning the interpretation of handwritten and printed ancient texts; in modern philosophy, a method of interpreting cultural and historical phenomena.

Heuristics (from the Greek heurisko - I find) is a term denoting a field of knowledge about creative activity, associated with the search for new avenues in reasoning, ideas, and methods of action; it also refers to the science that studies creative activity.

Historicism is a principle of scientific cognition that holds that processes of reality should be considered in their lawful historical development, in close connection with the specific historical conditions of their existence.

Humanism (from Latin humanos - human, humane) - in a broad sense, a system of views that positions humans as the highest value, affirming their right to freedom, happiness, and more; in a narrow sense, the cultural movement of the Renaissance.

Hylozoism (from Greek hyle - matter and zoe - life) - a philosophical doctrine that posits the capacity to feel as inherent in all matter.

Idea (from the Greek idea - appearance, image, principle) is a form of spiritual and cognitive reflection of certain regular connections and relations of the external world, aimed at its transformation.

Ideal (from the Greek idea - archetype) is a notion of the highest perfection that serves as a model, norm, and ultimate goal defining a particular manner and character of action for individuals or social classes.

Idealism (from the Greek idea - appearance, archetype) is a philosophical direction opposing materialism, which endeavors to demonstrate that spirit, consciousness, thought, and the ideal are primary, while being, nature, and the material are secondary.

Ideology (from the Greek idea and logos - doctrine) is a system of political, economic, legal, moral, aesthetic, philosophical, and religious views that express the interests of certain classes or social groups.

Illusion refers to the illusory awareness of reality conditioned by the limitations of historical practice at any given moment.

Immanent (from the Latin immanens - inherent, intrinsic) signifies that which is internally inherent, in contrast to the transcendent - external; it arises from the nature of the phenomenon itself.

Imperative (from the Latin imperativus - commanding, imperative) denotes a demand, order, law; in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, it represents a universally significant moral requirement, in contrast to the personal principle (maxim).

Indeterminism (from the Latin in - negation, determinare - to define, to limit) is a philosophical doctrine denying the objective conditioning of phenomena in nature, society, and human psychology, as well as the necessary and lawful connections between them.

Individualism (from the Latin individuum - indivisible) is a characteristic of worldview and behavior principles of an individual where the interests of the individual are absolutized, opposing the collective and society.

Individuality is the uniquely original mode of being of a specific personality as a subject of independent activity, an individual form of the social life of human beings.

Induction (from the Latin inductio - introduction) is a logical method, opposite to deduction, characterized by reasoning that moves from individual assertions to general propositions; it is a method of investigation where the general is understood based on knowledge of specific cases.

Innate Ideas are concepts and propositions that, according to idealistic thought, are inherent to human thought from the beginning and independent of experience; this doctrine was first introduced by Plato and recognized by R. Descartes, G. Leibniz, and others.

Interiorization (from the Latin interior - internal) is the formation of internal structures of human psyche through the assimilation of external social behavior.

Intuition (from the Latin intuitio, from intueor - I look carefully) is a method of grasping truth through immediate sensory contemplation or insight, in contrast to mediated, discursive logical reasoning.

Intuitionism is a philosophical direction that absolutizes intuition as the sole reliable mode of knowledge.

Irrationalism (from the Latin irrationalis - unreasonable, unconscious) is a principle in epistemology that advocates the limitations of rational knowledge, contrasting it with intuition, faith, and instinct as primary modes of understanding.

Logic (from Greek logike, meaning "the science of inference") is the science of the laws, forms, and methods of thought that facilitate the attainment of objective truth in the processes of reasoning and cognition.

Logos (from Greek logos, meaning "concept, thought, reason") is a term in ancient Greek philosophy signifying meanings such as "word," "sense," "judgment," "proportionality," "foundation," "reason," and connotes objective regularity and necessity.

Materialism (from Latin materialis, meaning "substantial") stands as a philosophical direction opposing idealism, positing that nature, existence, and matter are primary, while consciousness, thought, and spirit are secondary.

Metaethics (from Greek meta, meaning "beyond," and ethos, meaning "custom") is the study of the objective foundations for the existence of various moral and ethical systems.

Metaphysics (from Greek meta, meaning "beyond," and physika, meaning "nature") refers to: 1) in the history of philosophy, a term used to denote philosophical doctrines concerning supra-sensory, inaccessible principles of being; 2) a mode of thought and method of cognition opposing dialectics, which examines objects and phenomena outside their internal connections and development, disregarding internal contradictions as sources of self-motion.

Method (from Greek methodos, meaning "the way to something") denotes a means of achieving a goal, organizing practical and theoretical engagement with reality, conditioned by the regularities of the relevant object.

Methodology (from method and Greek logos, meaning "teaching") signifies: 1) the study of methods of cognition and transformation of reality; 2) the totality of research techniques employed in a particular science.

Monism (from Greek monos, meaning "one, singular") stands as a philosophical principle opposing dualism and pluralism, explaining the diversity of the world as a manifestation of a single principle—either matter or spirit.

Moral Choice is an act of moral agency whereby an individual, asserting their sovereignty, determines their stance regarding a system of values and the methods of their realization through behavioral lines or specific actions.

Morality (from Latin mos, moris, meaning "custom") is a system of views, ideas, norms, and evaluations that regulate human behavior; one of the forms of social consciousness.

Mäevitic Method (the art of midwifery) is an epistemological approach developed by Socrates, who likened his role in aiding the birth of truth to the art of a midwife.

Natural Philosophy (from Latin natura, meaning "nature," and philosophia) is a system of speculative and sometimes fantastical notions about nature, primarily developed in philosophical teachings during the Renaissance and Modern period.

Neopositivism is one of the main currents of Western European philosophy in the 20th century, a contemporary form of positivism that, by contrasting science with philosophy, posits that the only valid knowledge is that which is scientific; it sees the sole task of philosophy as the analysis of linguistic forms of knowledge while ignoring all other philosophical problems.

Nihilism (from Latin nihil, meaning "nothing") entails the rejection of commonly accepted values, including ideals, moral norms, culture, and traditions.

Object of Cognition is a philosophical concept that expresses that which directs the active cognitive activity of a person as the subject of knowledge.

Objectification is the transformation of the subjective (properties inherent to the subject) into the objective (in the properties of the object), occurring within the process of social practice.

Objective Idealism is one of the principal varieties of idealism; acknowledging the primacy of spirit and the secondary nature of matter, unlike subjective idealism, it posits that the foundation of existence is not individual human consciousness but a certain objective superhuman consciousness—the "absolute spirit," or world spirit. The main representatives include Plato and Hegel.

Ontology (from Greek ontos, meaning "being," and logos, meaning "teaching") is the philosophical doctrine of being.

Pantheism (from Greek pan, meaning "all," and theos, meaning "God") is a philosophical-religious doctrine positing that God is an impersonal principle pervading all nature, identical to it or its substance.

Paradigm (from Greek paradeigma, meaning "example, model") is a set of theoretical and methodological preconditions that define a specific scientific inquiry; it serves as a template or model for addressing concrete research tasks; introduced by American scholar T. Kuhn in his work "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions."

Patristics (from Latin pater, meaning "father") is one of the leading ideological currents of the Middle Ages aimed at interpreting biblical texts, theological questions, and more.

Personalism (from Latin persona, meaning "personality") is a current in contemporary Western philosophy that regards the person as the primary reality and the highest spiritual value.

Personality denotes a human individual in terms of their social qualities, which are formed through historically specific types of activity and social relations.

Philosophical Anthropology - a branch of contemporary philosophy that studies the nature of humanity, human properties, and relations; its primary task is the development of a holistic doctrine regarding the origin and evolution of humans, the peculiarities of human life, and their cognitive, communicative, and creative capabilities.

Pluralism (from Latin pluralis, meaning "multiple") is a philosophical concept asserting the existence of several or numerous independent substantial principles or modes of being.

Positivism (from Latin positivus, meaning "positive") is a direction in contemporary philosophy that proclaims the only source of true knowledge as concrete (empirical) sciences and denies the cognitive value of theoretical speculative inquiry (philosophical investigation); in essence, it represents empiricism.

Providentialism (from Latin providentia, meaning "foreknowledge, providence") is a theological understanding of the causes of social events as manifestations of God's will, with their meaning being interpreted as a preordained intention of God.

Rationalism (from the Latin ratio - reason) - 1) in a broad sense, a philosophical movement that stands in opposition to mysticism, theology, and irrational beliefs in the capacity of human reason to comprehend the laws governing the development of nature and society; 2) a direction in the theory of knowledge that, in contrast to sensualism (empiricism), considers reason (theoretical thought) to be the sole source and criterion of knowledge.

Reflection (from Latin reflexio - turning back, reflection) - a term designating a characteristic of human cognition, namely, the investigation of the act of cognition itself, the activity of self-knowledge, which allows for the revelation of the specific nature of the human spirit.

Relativism (from Latin relativus - relative) - 1) the principle of the relativity of human knowledge; 2) a subjectively idealistic doctrine that absolutizes the relativity of human knowledge, denying the moments of absolute truth within it and, on this basis, negating objective truth and the knowability of the world.

Representation - a sensory and visual image of objects, phenomena of reality, and the world as a whole, which encompasses the generalization of both social and individual human experiences.

Scholasticism (from Greek schole - learned, learned discourse, school) - a type of medieval philosophy that was entirely subordinate to religion; its aim was to substantiate, systematize, and defend theology using rationalistic means.

Scientism (from Latin scientia - knowledge, science) - a worldview position based on the idea of scientific knowledge as the highest cultural value, a sufficient condition for human orientation in the world.

Self-consciousness - the act of distinguishing oneself from the objective world, the awareness and evaluation of one’s relationship to the world, oneself as a personality, one’s actions, thoughts, feelings, desires, and interests.

Sensualism (from Latin sensus - feeling, sensation) - a direction in the theory of knowledge that recognizes sensation as the sole source of knowledge; it stands in opposition to rationalism.

Skepticism (from Greek skeptikos - doubtful, one who investigates) - a philosophical doctrine that questions the possibility of obtaining reliable knowledge about the objective world.

Soul refers to the psyche, the inner world of a person, their self-awareness; in religion, it denotes a non-material, otherworldly immortal force temporarily residing within the body.

Spontaneous (from Latin spontaneus - voluntary) - a characteristic of processes that arise not from external actions and causes but as a result of internal self-movement, voluntarily; self-activity, the capacity for active actions driven by internal impulses.

Subject (from Latin subjectum - that which lies at the foundation) - a bearer of a certain kind of activity.

Subjective idealism - a philosophical trend whose representatives reject the existence of an objective reality that is independent of the will and consciousness of the subject, viewing the only reality as the aggregate of sensations, experiences, moods, and actions of the subject; classic representatives of subjective idealism include Berkeley, Hume, and Fichte.

Sublimation (from Latin sublimo - I lift up, elevate) - one of the fundamental concepts of psychoanalysis, a particular form of the diversion of instincts from their inherent direction and the redirection of their energy toward achieving social and cultural goals.

Substance (from Latin substantia - essence) - a philosophical category denoting the ultimate basis of the diversity of phenomena in nature and history, which is the self-motion of matter.

Subsumption is one of the central categories in the philosophy of G.W.F. Hegel, denoting the simultaneous destruction and preservation of something.

Talion (from Latin talio - revenge achieved by inflicting equal harm) - an ancient custom that regulated relations among blood-related groups and obliged relatives to adhere to norms of simple equality in their acts of vengeance.

Teleology (from Greek telos - goal, end and logos - doctrine) - a doctrine stating that development is the realization of a predetermined purpose, where everything in the development of nature and society is purposeful.

The Ideal is a subjective image of objective reality arising from the directed activity of individuals.

Triad (from Greek trias - triad, trio) - a term designating the idea of the three-stage development: thesis, antithesis, synthesis.

Truth is the adequate reproduction in cognition of objective reality, resulting from a specific, practice-determined epistemological relationship, whereby the cognitive image of the subject serves as an adequate reflection of the actual state of the object.

Universals (from Latin universalis - general) - a philosophical term used to denote general concepts (table, person) in contrast to singular ones (this specific table, this specific person); it was widely employed in medieval scholasticism.

Universe (from Latin universum - world, universe) - a philosophical term designating the objective world as a totality that is in constant self-motion, where each part is a link in an infinite chain of the development of matter.

Utilitarianism (from Latin utilitas - utility, benefit) - a principle for evaluating all phenomena based on their usefulness, their potential as means to achieve any ends; a direction in ethics that regards utility as the foundation of morality and the criterion for human actions.

Utopia (from Greek u - not, topos - place, literally "non-existent place") - a term denoting ideal, scientifically unfounded projects of an exemplary social order.

Verification (from Latin verus - true and facio - I make) - the establishment of the truth of scientific assertions through empirical testing.

Voluntarism (from Latin voluntas - will) - a philosophical direction that proclaims the will as the foundation of being; activity that is governed solely by subjective desires and decisions.

Will - an integral capacity of consciousness that regulates and motivates human behavior, allowing the overcoming of obstacles, setting goals, making choices, and formulating and implementing decisions.

Wisdom represents a pre-theoretical form of worldview philosophical comprehension of reality and the resolution of practical matters based on life experience and reason.