The Historical Development of Philosophy

Greek Philosophy

A General Overview of the Development of Greek Philosophy

Reflection on the world and its evolution, as well as on the source and ultimate purpose of our own existence, is as ancient as human thought itself and is found wherever this thought manifests. Such reflection is already evident in primitive man through the diverse beliefs that, initially concerning only the immediate practical interests of human life, gradually expand their reach with the growth of culture and the increasing interactions among people. Ultimately, even before the rise of science, these reflections elevate to the idea of a universal connection among things and the unity governing the external world and human destiny. The awakening of such views has been facilitated by the collective interplay of intellectual and ethical needs, curiosity, and the desire for a happier life, as well as reason and imagination. The culmination of these spiritual endeavors manifests in myth. Fantastical in its sensory and contemplative form, myth reflects human experience, affections, aspirations, and contemplation on the interrelations of things. From the initial images created under the influence of immediate fears, desires, and external events, mythological deities gradually transform into anthropomorphic prototypes of our own virtuous and malicious actions. With the maturation of moral consciousness, these deities become avengers of transgressions and, later, rewards for good deeds, simultaneously acting as the driving forces of nature and guardians of the natural cosmic order. Science enters history the moment an attempt is made to comprehend the cosmic order through concepts rather than through this fantastical form of mythological worldview. This transition to science occurs in various cultural centers in notably different ways; the manner of this transition significantly influences the future of spiritual culture. For instance, Indian philosophy, which in many respects can be considered similar in origin to European philosophy, owes its distinctive character to the fact that the process of delineating mythology, religion, and science remained internal in India. Since the responsibility for science primarily rested with the priests, the further development of religious and scientific perspectives continuously aligned with ancient traditions. Consequently, even in later periods, the original myths here retained their significance as symbolic expressions of purely religious and scientific beliefs, already free from mythological elements.

In parallel with Indian philosophy and the spiritual development of other Eastern nations, Western philosophy develops. While some later Greeks perceived the beginnings of their philosophy in the wisdom of Egyptian priests, such claims, which are partially grounded in myths, hold little veracity. Certainly, in specific fields of knowledge, such as mathematics, astronomy, and medicine, the Greeks might have drawn initial impulses for their development from Eastern nations, particularly through interactions with the Egyptians; however, the emergence of Western philosophy, in any case, is a complete product of the Greek spirit, leaving its imprint in every respect. From the very beginning of Greek spiritual life, the aforementioned process of separating philosophy from myth occurred in a manner quite different from that of the related Indian peoples. The liberation of religious and scientific thought transpires here not through a peaceful internal evolution but in the form of a struggle that the nascent science waged against the religious concepts still revolving in the sphere of myth. Thus, from the earliest times, Greek philosophy's aim has been not merely to satisfy the thirst for knowledge but also to replace the religious beliefs, which were ethically of a lower nature, of popular faith with more refined, scientifically grounded notions. The individuals who undertook this struggle did not belong to the priestly class; they were private citizens endowed with a broad spectrum of experience and free from prejudices in their contemplation of the world and life. Consequently, Western science from the outset adopted a distinctive character—characterized by free reflection on problems, guided solely by the thirst for knowledge and unencumbered by any external constraints.

In Greek philosophy, one can delineate three distinctly different developmental periods, which correspond, on one hand, to the stages of natural development of humanity’s striving for knowledge and, on the other, are closely linked with the states of Greek spiritual culture—some aspects of which may even serve as prototypes for all cultural development, representing its universally significant conditions. Therefore, the history of Greek philosophy embodies a comprehensive yet vibrant individual representation of spiritual development as a whole. These three periods can be labeled cosmological, ethical-political, and ethical-religious-philosophical based on their predominant interests. The first spans from the 7th to the 5th century B.C.; the second, during which universal scientific systems emerge through the connection of the anthropological with the preceding cosmological orientation, corresponds to the 5th to 4th centuries B.C.; the third aligns with the culture of Hellenism and the amalgamation of Greek education with foreign, Eastern, and Roman cultural elements, extending from the 3rd century B.C. to the 3rd century A.D. The first of these developmental periods is exclusively one of natural philosophy; the second is the period in which universal philosophical scientific systems are established; the third period, while attempts are made to further develop scientific systems, acquires its original significance primarily in the realms of ethics and the philosophy of religion.