Philosophy of Ancient India

Unorthodox Philosophical Teachings

Lokāyata
This school was known in India long ago and existed for no less than two thousand years, yet it remains largely enigmatic, for no works of its adherents have survived. Even the very name of the school is fraught with ambiguity. "Lokāyata" has been translated variously as "popularly known," "the viewpoint of the common people," or at times as "those who follow the path of the earthly world." What is clear is that the name underscores the contradictions between the worldview foundations of this school and the elite schools of the Brahmin priests. The aforementioned Śankara portrayed the Lokāyatikas as a coarse, uneducated crowd. The ancient nature of Lokāyata is evidenced by the Upanishads, which refer to its mythological founder as Brihaspati, attributed with the notion that the essence of all living beings is the body, while the soul is nothing more than an illusion. The "I" is the body endowed with reason, and this thesis is corroborated by the observation that reason exists only where there is a body, and no one has ever witnessed a bodiless reason.

In the medieval period, adherents of materialistic philosophical inclinations were more frequently referred to as “Chārvāka,” but they represent the same line of philosophical thought.
Lokāyatikas believed that the sole source of genuine knowledge about the real world is the testimony of sensory perception, and that religious texts cannot contribute anything more significant than experience. To external perception was added internal perception, whereby external testimonies are mediated through consciousness.
The world consists solely of four elements perceivable by the senses: air, fire, water, and earth. Through the combination of these elements, both inanimate and animate objects are formed, which, upon death, decompose back into the same elements. The supposition of something invisible as a primordial source is dismissed, as it cannot be proven to exist.
Lokāyatikas rejected notions of paradise and souls residing in another world. The world is singular, composed of fundamental elements, from which consciousness is also formed through interaction. The concept of karma was negated, for if the soul can transition from one body to another, why does it not remember its past incarnations? Or if an individual is reborn in a new body after death, why do they not wish to assume their previous form, if only out of love for those dear to them whom they have left behind? When no one has ever observed the process of the soul's transmigration, on what basis do they assert it? The idea of karma, Lokāyatikas are convinced, arises either from a misunderstanding of natural laws or from the conscious deception of people. Therefore, they condemned the Vedas unreservedly.

Jainism
The founder of Jainism is considered to be Vardhamāna (599—527 BCE), also known as Mahāvīra, a title meaning "the Great Hero," from which the name of the entire school is derived. The term "Jainism" refers both to one of the Indian religions and to a philosophical system. The philosophical framework of Jainism, expounded in the Jaina-sūtras (a canon of 41 works), took shape at the dawn of the new era and has remained virtually unchanged to this day.
Contrary to Lokāyatikas, Jains hold that besides sensory experience as a source of knowledge, there are two additional significant sources—logical inference and testimony from authoritative individuals. Based on these three sources of knowledge, a model of the world is constructed. From perception, we learn that all bodies are composed of the four elements discussed by the Lokāyatikas. Through logical inference, we ascertain the existence of space (ākāśa), as bodies must exist somewhere, and of time (kāla), as changes, understood as a sequential series of states of bodies, cannot be comprehended without time. There must also exist causes for movement and stillness, as without them one cannot explain motion and its cessation in things. These causes are termed dharma and adharma. Dharma is that which facilitates movement, is its condition, and is neither created by anyone nor subject to destruction. A-dharma represents absolute stillness and has also been present in nature from the beginning. Together, dharma, a-dharma, kāla, and ākāśa are known as a-rūna (formless), for these essences cannot be represented in tangible form. In contrast to them stands rūna—those phenomena that can be perceived through the senses. Pudgala (matter) is divided into the same four elements (earth, water, fire, air), from the mixture of which every object is formed. Jains also acknowledged atoms (anu), which are infinitely small, identical, eternal, and neither created nor destroyed by anyone.

Relying on perception and logical inference, Jains assert that all living bodies possess souls, which act as guiding substances directing our bodies toward successful functioning. A soul exists not only in animals but also in plants and even in particles of dust. Souls have varying degrees of consciousness. In plants and particles of dust, there exists only sensory consciousness; lower living organisms possess two senses, while more developed beings have three or four. In humans and some other animals, there are five. However, regardless of the degree of sensory capacity, the soul residing in the body is limited in its ability to know and experiences all forms of suffering. Nonetheless, each soul inherently has the potential to attain boundless consciousness, strength, and happiness. Yet, this is impeded by karma. In Jainism, karma refers to the forces of passions and desires of the soul that attract particles of matter to it, which then permeate the soul, akin to dust entering the light of a flame or the sun. Thus, karma is the cause of the soul's entrapment in matter, and one must attain liberation by shedding karma and consequently freeing oneself from matter.
The teachings and lives of the saints (tīrthankaras) who have achieved liberation demonstrate the possibility of release and indicate the paths to it. To attain liberation, three elements are essential: complete faith in the teachings of Jainism, precise knowledge of these teachings, and proper conduct, which consists in refraining from injustice, falsehood, theft, and sensual attachment to objects. By cultivating right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct within ourselves, we can gain control over our passions, after which karma will recede, and the soul will regain its inherent perfections. This will constitute the state of liberation.
In Jainism, the place of God is occupied by tīrthankaras, yet they are revered not as deities in the manner of other religions but as ideals to be emulated. Committed Jains adhere to strict asceticism. The Digambaras ("clothed in light") do not wear clothing, remain celibate, and adhere to the principle of ahimsa, which dictates not to kill any living being, not even insects.

Buddhism
The founder of Buddhism is regarded as Siddhartha Shakyamuni ("the ascetic of the Shakya clan"). The name Siddhartha, meaning "the one who has fulfilled his purpose," was given to him at birth, while the nickname bestowed upon him by his contemporaries was Buddha (from the Sanskrit Buddha, meaning "the enlightened one, endowed with the highest knowledge," "illuminated by truth"). He lived approximately from 563 to 483 BCE, reaching the age of 80, half of which he spent teaching his doctrine. The Buddha was, above all, a religious reformer, and his followers are convinced that he appeared in the world to guide people toward salvation, toward the liberation from the suffering to which living beings are condemned. Thus, Buddhism has existed for 2,500 years and is predominantly a religion (and indeed a global one) rather than a philosophy. However, some time after its inception, especially as it demonstrated its viability and grew popular, its ideologists attended to its philosophical foundations. Here, we shall only address the essential tenets of Buddhist philosophical doctrine.

One of the central concepts of this doctrine is dharma, which can be translated as "element." Existence is the interaction of certain finite elements of "matter," "spirit," and "forces," collectively referred to by the term dharma. These alone constitute true realities, and any combination of them is merely a name for a specific arrangement that lacks its own distinct essence. Each element (dharma) is a unique entity. The elements do not penetrate one another, although they can interact; their interaction is governed by the law of causality. The world process represents the interaction of 72 kinds of elements (dharmas) and tends toward tranquility and eventual extinguishment.

Dharma should not be understood as particles of a material nature that constitute the world. They are, in fact, the most minute fragments of consciousness, comprehended in the broadest sense: from sensation to higher-order mental manifestations. Buddhist theorists conceive consciousness as an uninterrupted stream of particles that momentarily appear and swiftly disappear, collectively forming the content of awareness. This continuously changing combination generates all sensations, representations, emotions, desires, ideas, and so forth. These combinations of dharmas “create” what people refer to as the external world, although, in reality, there exists no particular, tangible reality—only an illusion of it, a projection of mental states “outward.” Thus, seriously speaking, there is no suffering from which Buddhist religion seeks to liberate individuals; there exists merely the illusion of suffering, birthed from a distressed consciousness. By restoring order to the mind, these illusions will dissipate, revealing the path to nirvana.

Nirvana is yet another significant concept in Buddhism, denoting complete tranquility, extinction, and sometimes even death. While in other religions, including those beliefs prevalent in India, the existence of an individual soul (for instance, atman) is acknowledged, Buddhism denies this notion, and thus the idea of its immortality. Therefore, Buddhism espouses what may be termed anatta (“not-soul”). This indicates that anatta, much like our “self,” possesses an artificial character, and is merely conditionally labeled as such, for it is divided by a series of states of elements and is also an illusion. Consequently, nirvana can be interpreted as liberation from one’s own “self,” the shedding of the illusion of the existence of a certain established complex known as the “self.”

Buddhism, moreover, acknowledges karma, yet interprets it in its own manner. The dissolution of a situational combination of elements (such as what we refer to as our “self”) does not equate to the cessation of the connections among them. For example, a moving ball collides with another ball and transfers its motion to it, even while it itself comes to a halt. Thus, the consequences of actions persist, becoming the cause of further consequences. This mirrors the karmic law: one state is the cause of subsequent states.

While Buddhism indeed possesses a metaphysical and ontological component, its primary focus remains on humanity, the issues of morality, and the justification of norms for a righteous life connected to the aspiration for nirvana. The Buddha articulated the “Noble Eightfold Path” as a gradual transformation of human psychology:

1. Right views—acceptance of the Four Noble Truths [a) life is filled with suffering; b) life itself is the cause of suffering; c) suffering can be ceased; d) there is a path that leads to its cessation];
2. Right intentions—cultivating a desire to attain nirvana;
3. Right speech—abstaining from falsehood;
4. Right action—avoiding harm to other sentient beings;
5. Right livelihood—obtaining sustenance through honest means;
6. Right effort—exercising control over the state of mind, avoiding selfish thoughts;
7. Right mindfulness—not concentrating attention on oneself, thus avoiding thoughts like “this is I,” “this is mine,” and so forth;
8. Right concentration—achieving a state of complete detachment from the world, its allure, and desires.

The history of Buddhism is long and complex. It originated in ancient times in India and evolved into a world religion in the medieval period, though already beyond its homeland. Today, it is prevalent in China (especially in Tibet), Japan, Mongolia, Burma, Ceylon, and some regions of Russia. It has various schools that dominate in different countries. In the 20th century, its modernized form (Zen Buddhism) gained popularity among certain strata of Western society, drawn by mysticism that seemingly resonated with the worldviews of specific social circles during certain crisis periods.

Even from this brief overview of ancient Indian philosophy and the development of its various worldview orientations, it is evident that we are dealing with a colossal and very ancient tradition of contemplating the intricate problems of human existence in the world. This fosters a conviction regarding the significant place of this philosophical tradition in the history of world philosophy. Ancient Indian schools endured until the late Middle Ages, significantly influencing the ideological development of India. In modern and contemporary history, this influence has extended to Western civilization as well. To this day, scholars, writers, and public and political figures from various countries turn to the achievements of ancient Indian thought. Scholarly debate concerning the problems of this philosophical heritage remains vigorous. The ideas posited by ancient thinkers transcended their era, anticipating the philosophical views of subsequent epochs, or were revitalized in modernized forms, receiving new impetus for life.