Philosophy of Ancient India

Vedic Literature as the Source of Ancient Indian Philosophy

In the formation and initial development of ancient Indian philosophy, the Vedic literature and ancient poetic works played a significant role. The Vedas are collections of hymns, songs, magical invocations, and ritual formulas, with the earliest texts dating back to the mid-second millennium BCE. The great epics "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana," composed in the mid-first millennium BCE, held a prominent place in Indian culture, particularly the section of the "Mahabharata" known as the "Bhagavad Gita."

Vedic literature (the original term, "Vedas," means "knowledge") was written in ancient Indian language during the period of conquest by Aryan tribes over the indigenous peoples of Ancient India. It consists of four groups of texts:

1. Samhitas, which are considered the Vedas themselves; they are the most ancient, while the other texts serve as commentaries and supplements to the Samhitas. The Samhitas contain four parts: the Rigveda, or the Veda of hymns, created around the 11th century BCE (a collection of 1,028 hymns, with over 10,500 verses, comparable to the Homeric "Iliad" and "Odyssey" combined); the Samaveda (a collection of songs predominantly composed on Rigvedic verses, with 1,594 verses of which 1,470 are found in the Rigveda); the Yajurveda (a collection of sacrificial formulas, which largely duplicate the Rigveda); and the Atharvaveda (a collection of magical incantations containing over 700 spells).
2. Brahmanas - interpretations or commentaries on the texts of the Samhitas, possessing ritual significance and created around the 8th to 6th centuries BCE. Each Brahmana pertains to a specific Samhita and was written by Brahmins (priests) for Brahmins. These texts are considered to lack particular philosophical significance and serve as a connecting link between the Samhitas and the Upanishads.
3. Aranyakas (literally meaning "forest" texts), designed for ascetics—those who withdrew to the woods to contemplate the essence of being and truth.
4. Upanishads - the most philosophical part of the Vedas. The term "Upanishad" derives from the words upa, ni, and shad—“one who sits near,” referring to a disciple who sits beside the teacher to listen to their instructions; in other contexts, "Upanishads" translates to "secret teachings," not intended for everyone. These are collections of both major and minor texts, with ancient Indian tradition counting 108, while contemporary literature mentions figures ranging from 200 to 300 texts written over a significant historical period (from the 8th century BCE to the mid-19th century CE). The oldest Upanishads include Chhandogya, Brihadaranyaka, Aitareya, Kaushitaki, Taittiriya, and Kena.

Before delving into the philosophical content of the Upanishads, let us present some examples from other Vedic literature to illustrate its worldview orientation.

“Then there was neither being nor non-being; there was neither space nor the sky above it. What was moving? Where? Under whose protection? By what did the waters, impenetrable and deep, flow? Then there was neither death nor immortality, nor was there any distinction between night and day. Without breath, the One breathed of itself, and nothing else existed.” (Rigveda, X, 129, 1).

“Some consider the resting realm of non-being as supreme, while others regard the existent as such, venerating this realm.” (Atharvaveda, X, 7, 21).

“Truly, in the beginning, it was as if there were neither non-being nor being. In the beginning, it was as if it was and as if it was not. It was only thought. Therefore, the wise have said: ’Then there was neither non-being nor being.’ For thought is neither existent nor non-existent. It, thought, having been created, wished to become manifest, more clearly expressed, with a more distinct form.” (Shatapatha Brahmana, X, 5, 3, 1-3).

In the excerpts presented, we intentionally avoided complicating the understanding of the texts by omitting references to mythological imagery and the numerous deities, which abundantly populate the Vedas.

One of the central themes of the Upanishads is the question of the fundamental nature of being, with the pursuit of understanding revolving around the development of the core concepts of ancient Indian philosophy: "Brahman" and "Atman," along with their dialectics. The term "Brahman" carries multiple meanings: Brahman as a member of the priestly caste, Brahman as a group of texts within Vedic literature, Brahman as the name of one of the gods, and Brahman as a philosophical category expressing a common foundation of all that exists. Similarly, "Atman" possesses various meanings: as body, breath, individual human soul, or as the universal soul, which is identical to Brahman. The Upanishads assert that Atman, as the spiritual "I" of each individual, merges with the overarching spiritual essence of all existence, namely Brahman, becoming in their union "Atman-Brahman," wherein Atman characterizes the subjective aspect, while Brahman embodies the objective side of the one essence.

The Upanishads also contain teachings on karma and samsara. Karma (the law of retribution) refers to the totality of good and bad deeds performed by an individual in their previous existences, where the overall balance of actions determines the individual's future fate. A person who has degraded themselves through immoral actions may, at some point, be reborn as an animal, plant, or even stone. However, the path to returning to human form remains open, as all things possess a soul; through spiritual effort, an individual can reclaim their human form even from a state of petrification.

In the Upanishads, the doctrine of karma is linked with the teaching of samsara, the eternal cycle of life and death. The goal of life should be to achieve inner liberation from this cycle: “The one who lives thoughtlessly, without mindfulness, who is always tainted, will not reach that place (the shore of peace) and will return to samsara. But the one who lives wisely, with mindfulness, who is never tainted, will reach that place from which one is not reborn.” (Katha Upanishad, I, 3.7-3.8).

The notions of karma and samsara have permeated nearly all philosophical systems in India. The Upanishads do not merely acknowledge the transience and interconnection of phenomena; this truth serves as a foundational point for justifying a system of behavior with a religious character. There exists a continuous cycle of life and death, where each particle of the world conceals within it an indestructible wholeness. This cycle governs everything in the world. Only humans, uniquely among all things, possess the ability to comprehend the essence of this process and achieve inner liberation from the bonds of life (not to abolish or evade, but to “achieve inner liberation” by adopting a position of detachment). The ideal of the Upanishads is the sage who has renounced worldly affairs, refraining from interference and remaining indifferent to all that transpires in the world. Having recognized their connection to the entire world and identified themselves with it, what would such a sage aspire to? Tranquility in witnessing the grandeur of the Universe and its symbol—Brahman.

Like all Vedic literature, the Upanishads are the wellspring of ancient Indian philosophy. The schools that closely follow them are termed orthodox. These include Samkhya, Yoga, Vaisheshika, Nyaya, Mimamsa, and Vedanta. Those that did not heavily concern themselves with the authority of the Vedas formed three other schools: Lokayata, Jainism, and Buddhism. Let us first briefly examine the foundational teachings of the orthodox schools (Darshanas).