Philosophy of Ancient India

Indian Philosophical Schools (Darshanas) of the Vedic Tradition

Sankhya

Kapila is regarded as the founder of this school; however, his writings have not survived, and there is little information about his life. The earliest text associated with this school is the Sankhya Karika, authored by Ishvarakrishna, which is dated to the 4th or 5th century CE. This work succinctly presents the central tenets of classical Sankhya. The last representatives of this school thrived in the 16th and 17th centuries.

The term “Sankhya” is multifaceted, signifying “number,” “quantity,” “analysis,” and “reflection,” and the school is likely named so due to its focus on quantitative analysis and the importance of numerical symbolism, or perhaps because of the rationalism inherent in its teachings. This rather rationalistic doctrine aspires, drawing on the Vedas, to provide a comprehensive system of knowledge about the world, its causes, origins, and transformations. The foundational thesis acknowledges the existence of a primordial essence of the universe—prakriti—often translated as “nature,” although some scholars suggest it might be more aptly rendered as “matter.” Prakriti exists in two forms: vyakta (manifest) and a-vyakta (unmanifest). These concepts are borrowed from the Upanishads but possess different meanings: vyakta refers to the totality of specific entities as modifications of a primary material wholeness (a-vyakta).

In addition to prakriti, Sankhya also recognizes the existence of another independent principle—purusha. Purusha is a kind of universal spirit, a “pure consciousness” (the original meanings of the word “purusha” include man, male, hero, and soul). Ishvarakrishna articulates the necessity of the union of prakriti and purusha so that purusha may perceive prakriti, and thus there is an entity to showcase its creative power. The union of purusha and prakriti is explained through the analogy of the capabilities of a lame person and a blind one: prakriti represents the blind, yet mobile entity, while purusha possesses sight but lacks motion.

At the same time, Ishvarakrishna emphasizes that purusha is merely a passive observer of the material processes instigated by prakriti’s actions. The impetus for motion and self-development resides within prakriti itself, leading to the rejection of the idea of a creator god.

The transformation of unmanifest prakriti into a multitude of entities occurs through the interplay of three gunas (qualities), which direct the motion and development of the universe. These gunas are rajas (desire, passion), tamas (darkness), and sattva (essence, truth, clarity). Prakriti is likened to a rope, woven from these three strands (gunas). Each tangible entity inevitably embodies all three gunas simultaneously, though their proportions vary. In some things, sattva predominates, leaning towards beauty, truth, and wisdom; in others, tamas prevails, imparting passivity and limitation; rajas is responsible for the activity and energy within things.

The concept of evolution also includes the notion of 24 tattvas (elements or essences), systematically arranged. From a-vyakta arises mahat, which serves as an intermediary between vyakta and a-vyakta and is also referred to as buddhi (consciousness). Mahat (or buddhi) gives rise to ahamkara (the principle of individualization), through which prakriti generates living beings. Buddhi and ahamkara initiate the organs of perception and action in humans, as well as the five material elements (bhuta) that constitute the external world. The material (gross) elements, known as mahabhuta, total five (ether, fire, air, water, and earth) and are composed of tanmatras (subtle essences), which in turn arise from ahamkara. The tattvas also include five senses and five organs of action (speech, hands, feet, excretory and reproductive organs). An eleventh “sense and action” is added, known as manas (mind), which serves to synthesize the data from the sensory organs. Thus, prakriti, mahat, ahamkara, the eleven manifestations of humanity, the five mahabhuta, and the five tanmatras collectively comprise the 24 tattvas (essences). The Sankhya of 24 elements differs from the Sankhya of 25 elements (which includes purusha). The Sankhya of 26 elements is sometimes referred to as yoga, which adds a deity to the preceding number.

An essential aspect of Sankhya's doctrine regarding the emergence and subsequent transformation of the world is the theory of causality known as sat-karya-vada (the doctrine of the presence of the effect within the cause that produces it). The school posits that if the effect were not present in the cause, it would arise from nothing. However, every action is produced solely by a specific primordial source (cheese is made from milk, fabric from thread), and every entity maintains a connection to its cause (a pot weighs the same as the clay expended in its creation). To explain why effects do not manifest immediately when they are already embedded within the cause, Sankhya asserts that effects are present in the cause in a potential, hidden form, and their realization requires a complex of specific conditions.

Regarding epistemological questions, Sankhya holds that knowledge of external things is acquired through three stages. The first stage is direct perception through the senses. In the second stage, manas processes the primary sensory data and transmits this material to buddhi, which serves as the principal instrument for attaining true knowledge. The third source of knowledge is considered the authoritative testimony of the Vedas.

Yoga

The earliest text of this school is the Yoga Sutra, attributed to Patanjali, who lived around the 1st century CE. The word “yoga” is of Sanskrit origin, meaning “connection” or “union.” The significance of this term becomes clear when one considers that the goal of yoga practitioners is to liberate the individual spirit from the cycles of samsara and the bonds of karma, and to unite it with the absolute spirit. Patanjali understood liberation as a complete separation of the individual from the world and a turning inward. To the general public, yoga is more widely known for its specific rules of psychologically oriented training aimed at achieving “liberation.”

In a broader philosophical context, yoga aligns closely with Sankhya, yet its teachings introduce a supreme deity (Ishvara), which exists eternally and initially separately from prakriti. The system of yoga comprises 26 elements (tattvas); sometimes, the Sankhya of 26 elements is referred to as yoga.

When delving into some specific theoretical positions of yoga, they should be sought within psychological matters, which better suit the psychophysical orientation of the adherents of this philosophical system. The central category for yoga is chitta, the psychic foundation, with its individual manifestations—specific mental states—serving as its modifications. Yoga engages in a detailed analysis of various mental states.

Depending on the methods proposed for achieving liberation, different schools of yoga are distinguished: jnana, raja, bhakti, and karma yoga.

Jnana yoga regards the understanding of the world as fundamentally separate from the atman as the primary method of liberation, which can subjectively perceive itself as connected to it.

Raja yoga, or royal yoga, which was primarily developed by Patanjali, emphasizes methods of mental and physical self-mastery through eight stages. The first two stages (yama and niyama) involve exercises in restraint, self-control, and non-anger. The subsequent three stages (collectively referred to as hatha yoga) encompass practices in breath control (pranayama), various fixed postures (asana), and the isolation of the senses from external influences (pratyahara). The last three stages pertain to mental training, collectively known as samyama, and consist of the following steps: concentration of thought (dharana), meditation (dhyana), and finally, deep introspection (samadhi), after which liberation from the corporeal shell occurs. According to Patanjali, maha-samadhi (where “maha” means “great”) concludes with death.

Bhakti Yoga

The Sanskrit term "bhakti" signifies "devotion," and the corresponding teaching of yoga espouses unconditional devotion and even love towards the Absolute, that is, God. Love and devotion to God are achieved through complete engagement in devoted service. The distinction between the initial and final stages lies in the fact that, at first, the activity is conducted through a sense of duty, whereas, in the end, it becomes spontaneous and is based solely on relationships of love.

Karma Yoga

In accordance with the philosophy of Sankhya, Karma Yoga posits that three forces interact within a person: sattva, rajas, and tamas. When tamas begins to dominate, we lose our activity and become lazy. When rajas takes precedence, activity prevails within the individual. Sattva expresses a balance between the first two forces. Karma Yoga pays particular attention to the interaction of these three forces, striving to learn how to utilize them in one’s life.

Vaisheshika

The name of this school derives from the Sanskrit term “vishesha,” meaning “particularity,” “distinction,” as well as “individual,” “primary substance,” and “particle.” The latter two meanings more closely correspond to the essence of the teaching. The founder of the school is regarded to be Kanada (1st century CE), to whom the work "Vaisheshika Sutra" is attributed, written in the form of aphorisms and consisting of ten books. This school was most closely linked to the natural philosophy tradition of the Upanishads. According to Kanada, the world arises from the interaction of eternal and uncreated atoms, known as anu (a word deriving from the Sanskrit "an," meaning “separate,” “subtle,” “smallest”). Atoms are indivisible, have a spherical shape, remain unchanged over time, and cannot be created or destroyed. There are four varieties of atoms, each with its properties corresponding to four material substances: earth, water, air, and light. Atoms of earth possess smell, color, taste, weight, and tactile accessibility. Atoms of other substances do not exhibit the entire set of these qualities; for instance, light possesses only color and tactile accessibility. Atoms, in themselves, are passive, and their initial mobility is provided by an invisible force (adrishta, which translates as “invisible” or “hidden,” with magnetism cited as an example of the action of adrishta), after which they begin to combine, forming substances.

Kanada's teachings enumerate nine substances: earth, water, air, fire, time, space, ether, soul, and mind. The combination of atoms from these substances constitutes the world. The entire sensory-accessible world is governed by a specific universal moral law (dharma), which also determines proper behavior for individuals in life. Adhering to the rules derived from this universal law enables a person to achieve a respectable place in life. However, this place is not something stable or permanent, for even the world-soul (Brahma) does not possess constant tranquility. Thus, a person must continually strive for self-improvement, aspiring towards true knowledge. The physical world, too, is not something static and eternal; only atoms are eternal. The process of world formation and subsequent destruction repeats cyclically.

In epistemological matters, Vaisheshika closely aligns with the Nyaya school.

Nyaya

The first systematic exposition of this school’s teachings is found in the "Nyaya Sutra," authored by Gotama, whose lifespan European Indologists attribute to the 2nd-4th centuries CE, while Indian scholars place him in the 1st millennium BCE. The representatives of the school predominantly focused on issues of logic and epistemology (the term "nyaya" signifies “rule of reasoning,” “logical conclusion,” and “logic” in general).

Gotama posited that the external world is real and open to knowledge through sensations, which are then synthesized by the mind according to the laws of logic. Addressing the problem of logical inference, Nyaya philosophers established a five-member syllogism (whereas in classical European logic, as seen in Aristotle, the syllogism is three-membered). In the first premise of the syllogism, a specific empirical fact is stated; in the second, a basis is provided that allows this fact to be deemed indisputable; in the third, a general proposition is presented, of which our fact is a specific instance; the fourth member of the syllogism seems to reproduce the second, but not inductively, rather deductively, as a consequence of the proclaimed rule; the fifth member coincides with the first but as a proven result. A classical example of such a syllogism is as follows:

1. There is fire on the mountain,
2. Because there is smoke on the mountain.
3. Where there is smoke, there is fire.
4. There is smoke on the mountain,
5. Therefore, there is fire on the mountain.

Or another example:

1. Ram is mortal,
2. Because he is a human.
3. All humans are mortal, for example, Socrates, Kant, Hegel.
4. Ram is also a human,
5. Therefore, he is mortal.

Nyaya philosophers associated logical fallacies with the aforementioned syllogistic form and identified five types of errors. The first type results from an improper formulation of the third member of the syllogism due to erroneous generalizations of individual facts. The second is connected with contradictions in the formulation of the same third member. The third type occurs when the third member of the syllogism can be refuted by another, better-founded one. The fourth type arises when the dependence between the second and first members is baseless. The fifth emerges when the third member can be refuted through a certain empirical perception. From this, it is evident that Nyaya aimed to approach the resolution of logical and epistemological problems quite thoroughly.

Mimamsa

The name of this school originates from the Sanskrit word meaning “penetration,” “investigation,” “discussion.” The founder is considered to be Jaimini, to whom the work "Mimamsa Sutra" is attributed, consisting of 2,500 brief statements. The exact lifetime of Jaimini is not established; researchers' discrepancies range from the 4th century BCE to the 2nd century CE. The emergence of this school is associated with the necessity to strengthen the authority of the Vedas and the positions of Brahmanism. Jaimini was a staunch proponent of the Samhitas and was ready to literally embrace Vedic rituals (especially those outlined in the Brahmanas) at the level of priests. Jaimini’s ideas were further developed in the 4th century by Shabara and in the 7th-8th centuries by Prabhakara and Kumarila.

If we evaluate the school purely from a philosophical perspective, the Mimamsakas (that is, the adherents of Mimamsa) were primarily concerned with epistemology. In terms of natural philosophy, they shared certain views with some other schools: they acknowledged the same nine substances as the Vaisheshikas, as well as the atomic theory, among other ideas. Their only disagreement lay in the notion that the world undergoes cyclical creation and destruction. From their perspective, the world is eternal, immutable, without beginning or end; it is only individual things that undergo change.

In their epistemological inquiries, they posited a fundamental principle regarding the sensory (sensualist) basis of knowledge and asserted that like is known by like. Objects, each dominated by one of the five elemental substances, are perceived through corresponding organs: the nose, tongue, skin, eyes, and ears. Jayamini proposed that there are five sources of correct knowledge: sensory perception, logical inference, comparison, supposition (akin to hypothesis), and testimony of authority (referring to Vedic texts).

Vedanta
The name of the school, translated from Sanskrit, means "the end, the conclusion of the Vedas." Initially, Vedanta referred to the Upanishads, which were, in fact, the concluding part of the entire corpus of Vedic literature. Since the Vedanta school extensively utilized the authoritative Upanishads, the name "Vedanta" became firmly associated with it. The founder of Vedanta is often regarded as Badarayana, who, according to various accounts, lived either in the 5th or the 2nd century BCE and was the author of the most ancient text of this school known as the "Vedanta Sutra." This work is divided into four chapters and consists of 555 sutras, each containing only 2-3 words. Such economy of expression renders the text somewhat obscure and opens a wide space for interpretation, which was the focus of Badarayana's followers. Among the most renowned interpreters and developers of Vedantic principles are Shankara (788-820), Ramanuja (1027 - early 12th century), and Vivekananda (1863-1902).

The principal theses that can be distilled from the terse and often obscure statements of Badarayana are as follows: the world does not derive from material forces; the sole reality is the spiritual principle (Brahman), and everything we know as existence emanates from it. Expanding upon Badarayana’s ideas, Shankara asserted that there exists a personal, absolute spirit (Brahman) as the foundation of being. The human soul (Atman) is identical to Brahman and represents its empirical manifestation. The surrounding world is not a part of Brahman; it is an illusion created by Brahman. Our empirical "self" is likewise illusory. Only Atman is real—a peculiar projection of Brahman onto that imaginary psychophysical complex we commonly refer to as a human being. Shankara regarded knowledge of the external world through the senses as self-deception, for both external objects and human cognitive faculties are mere illusions. People mistake their abstract representations, which arise from an "internal error," that is, the fundamental rejection of the Absolute (Brahman) as the only reality.

At certain times (especially in the medieval period), Vedanta became the dominant current among the other schools of Vedic tradition.