Philosophy of Ancient China

Philosophy of the Han Era

The Han dynasty was established in China in 202 BCE and lasted for over 400 years, until 220 CE. This was a monarchical (imperial) form of government that was notably centralized, with its socio-economic foundation rooted in both state and private forms of slavery. However, during this period, there was also a rise in large landholdings utilizing the labor of impoverished tenants, alongside the emergence of private smallholder agriculture. Gradually, nearly typical feudal relations took shape, characterized by a clear vertical structure and an increasing role for the emperor as the centralizing element. This centralization objectively required a more or less unified ideological foundation, which was effectively provided by Confucianism, assimilating elements from other philosophical schools, particularly Daoism and Buddhism. It was during this time that orthodox Confucianism emerged, significantly shaped by Dong Zhongshu (179-104 BCE).

While maintaining the core ideological principles of Confucianism, Dong Zhongshu synthesized certain tenets from other schools, thereby excluding the possibility of critical appraisal of his own beliefs. To justify a social order in which emperors, officials, men, and the elderly occupied leading positions while subordinates, women, and younger family members assumed lower roles, Dong Zhongshu employed the teachings of natural philosophers concerning yin, yang, and the five fundamental elements of nature (water, fire, wood, earth, metal), extensively utilizing the concept of the Dao. Nonetheless, the concept of Heaven remained pivotal for him.

The path of the Dao involves reverence for Heaven and submission to its mandates. These mandates are directly perceived by the sovereign, and thereafter the hierarchy proceeds in a descending order: “the people follow the sovereign, the sovereign follows Heaven.” The mandates of Heaven do not proclaim themselves; rather, Heaven compels individuals to express its will. Heaven does not act autonomously; it induces those under its dominion to act. The ruler is referred to as the “Son of Heaven,” receiving his mandate to govern directly from Heaven. The respectful contemplation of the superior by the inferior corresponds to social ranks. At the base is the common people, regarded as dark (aligned with the meaning of yin). The populace reverently contemplates the officials, officials regard the nobility, the nobility views the sovereign, and the sovereign regards Heaven. All the names assigned to social groups carry significant meaning, reflecting the characteristic qualities of their representatives. The people (mín) resonate closely with the notion of darkness (mǐn), the official (shī) also signifies “one who serves” (shī), and so forth. Dong Zhongshu posits that names arise from true reality, serving to express the authenticity of things, affairs, and actions, and all names align fundamentally with the intentions of Heaven.

The teachings of Dong Zhongshu were later canonized, so that even after many years, one can find numerous parallels with this thinker in the texts of the Han period. For instance, in the work of Ban Gu (32-92) titled “Bo Hu Tong,” there are discussions on the concepts of light and dark, the five primary elements, and the notion that all occurs under the mandates of Heaven, wherein the names of things are significant, expressing their essence: “What meaning is conveyed in the concepts of ’sovereign’ and ’subject’? Jun - ’sovereign’ - is akin to zhūn - ’the crowd.’ This signifies that the sovereign gathers the hearts of the crowd directed towards him. Chen - ’subject’ - is synonymous with chán-jiān - ’flexible and strong.’ This indicates that the subject, by tempering his will, becomes resolute and unyielding... What is meant by ’man’ and ’wife’? Fu - ’man’ - is equivalent to fú - ’to assist.’ This means that a man, adhering to the Dao, aids his wife in approaching him. Fu - ’wife’ - is the same as fú - ’to yield.’ This implies that a wife, in accordance with rituals, should humbly yield.”

The contributions of Wang Chong (27-97) hold significant importance in the history of Han philosophy. He is notably recognized for his critiques of Confucianism and certain aspects of Daoism, though some of his ideas are rooted in the latter. While the principle of naturalness is suggested by Daoism, Wang Chong reinterprets it with a somewhat different significance. He speaks of the universal importance of the principle of natural development for all existence beyond celestial causation. Even when discussing fate, Wang Chong interprets it not as the intervention of supernatural forces but as development according to natural law. “There are three fates,” he wrote. “The first is termed ’fate of naturalness,’ the second is ’fate dependent on circumstances,’ and the third is ’adverse fate.’” Wang Chong leans towards considering fate merely as human nature acquired through cultivation, a principle applicable to both humanity as a whole and to the individual.

A significant aspect of Wang Chong's teaching involves the concept of vital energy, which he extensively utilized to explain social and natural processes, ultimately tying back to “naturalness”: “I assert that Heaven is in a constant state of motion, radiating vital energy. All that exists is born precisely because Heaven, in its motion, radiates vital energy... In its movement, Heaven does not seek to produce things; rather, all things are born of themselves. This is the essence of naturalness.”

The aforementioned tenets of various schools of ancient Chinese philosophy affirm its general characterization: it was inherently socially, politically, and morally oriented, deeply engaged with issues of governance, the harmonization of relationships among people and social strata, as well as the challenges of education, stability, and equilibrium within society. From ancient times, it was grounded in ideas of the interaction of opposites and the presence of contradictions that constitute the essence of the being of natural things and social phenomena. In the life of Chinese society, both past and present, ancient philosophical achievements remain an active factor.