Philosophy of the Enlightenment

Enlightenment in Germany

In each European country, the Enlightenment exhibited its own distinct characteristics. In Germany, these particularities arose from several factors: firstly, the lingering influence of late scholasticism; secondly, the limited impact of Cartesianism, with rationalism even taking on an anti-Cartesian character; and thirdly, while the Enlightenment in France and England developed outside the confines of universities, in Germany, it struggled to establish itself within the academic milieu, only later flourishing beyond it in a generation that included figures like Moses Mendelssohn and Gotthold Lessing.

Christian Wolff. The most significant representative of Enlightenment philosophy in Germany was Christian Wolff (1679—1754), who profoundly influenced the state of philosophical inquiry not only in his homeland but also beyond its borders. He established a new type of university educator—well-prepared and authoritative not only within the academic sphere but also far beyond it. Prior to him, a university career had been rather unappealing, prompting Spinoza to decline an invitation from Heidelberg upon learning that ecclesiastical control would restrict his freedom of thought. Leibniz also refrained from teaching at universities.

Influenced by Leibniz’s rationalism, Wolff created a whole epoch through his numerous works. His writings cover almost the entire spectrum of philosophical disciplines of the time: logic, metaphysics, natural philosophy, ethics, political theory, statecraft, psychology, anthropology, and economics. The foundation of Wolff's metaphysics lies in ontology, where the principles of all being are articulated. He aligns with Leibniz in asserting that reality is composed of simple substances, though he does not term them "monads." The human soul, too, is a simple substance, possessing the capacity for imagination and the knowledge of various objects. Knowledge is not a purely passive process; it is rooted in the active capabilities of the spirit. The aim of philosophy is the attainment of happiness, which, like the progress of humanity as a whole, is interconnected with knowledge—an endeavor that necessitates freedom of thought.

Wolff was popular not only in Germany but also far beyond its borders. His philosophy gained traction due to his commitment to a coherent, systematic, and logically substantiated exposition of knowledge regarding all that exists, as well as his striving to employ clear and precise language in all expressions. Through the medium of his works, Wolff made a substantial contribution to the development of German philosophical and scientific terminology. His popularity was further bolstered by the fact that his most important works were translated into the major European languages during his lifetime.

Wolff revered reason, the emblem of the Enlightenment era, to such an extent that the titles of most of his works commenced with the phrase "Rational Thoughts on...". Notably, his principal work was entitled "Rational Thoughts on God, the World, the Human Soul, and on All Things in General." Wolff firmly believed that the philosopher is called to pursue true knowledge, and that the knowledge thus acquired must serve the betterment of humanity.

By the second half of the 18th century, Wolff's school had become the most influential in Germany, with Frederick II nearly declaring Wolff's philosophy the official philosophy of Prussia. Among the most prominent followers of this school, who made significant contributions to the German Enlightenment, were L. F. Tümmig (1697—1798), F. H. Baummeister (1709—1785), and O. G. Baumgarten (1714—1762).

Most Wolffians were preoccupied with purely formal clarifications of the philosophical system they had adopted, striving to overcome its contradictions and gaps. However, frequently, their work degenerated into mere games of definitions, an accumulation of abstract, artificial formulations, and ostentatiously logically correct connections in the writings of Wolff's lesser followers. As a result, over time, the Wolffian school increasingly resembled an analogue of scholasticism, drifting away from Enlightenment objectives. Nevertheless, Wolff himself could not be held responsible for this shift.

Gradually, in the second half of the 18th century, through the fusion of philosophical thought with Enlightenment ideas, there emerged what is known as "popular philosophy," which played a significant role in the cultural and philosophical education of contemporary society. In this context, the contributions of Moses Mendelssohn (1729—1786) and the renowned publisher Friedrich Nicolai (1733—1811) are noteworthy. These figures are primarily associated with the emergence of "popular philosophy." From a purely external standpoint, it is termed popular due to its closeness to general literature, from which philosophy learned a refined method of exposition and developed an elegant German philosophical style.

The achievements of F. Nicolai, his associates, and collaborators included the publication of numerous journals that facilitated educational efforts, promoting new knowledge and discoveries across various fields of natural and human sciences.

In his works, Mendelssohn championed the principle of religious tolerance, asserting that there exists a consensus among individuals of different religious denominations regarding the rational foundations of religion, and that the differences between religions arise solely from historical circumstances and upbringing. In his view, religion appeals to the conscience of the individual, and belonging to a religious community is a matter of the individual’s free choice. Within his overarching philosophical positions, Mendelssohn belonged to the Leibniz-Wolff school. His original contributions to philosophy are particularly evident in the field of aesthetics, which he regarded as an autonomous activity of the spirit, wherein sensibility holds the utmost significance.

Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729—1781) was not only a philosopher in the conventional sense but also a philosophical poet and writer advocating for tolerance and freedom. He became acquainted with the ardent champion of liberty, Voltaire, during the latter's stay in Berlin.

Lessing made significant contributions to various strands of Enlightenment thought. In his philosophical writings, he pointed out the limitations of any one-sided approach—be it rationalistic or superficially empirical—viewing such perspectives as inherently anti-historical. A considerable portion of Lessing’s works is devoted to aesthetic questions, wherein he introduced the idea of bringing art closer to life. As a fundamental aesthetic principle, he proposed the unity of the individual (sensory-image-based) and the generalized (conceptual-universal) representation of reality within artistic creations.

Lessing also explored the historical relationship between positive religion (for instance, Christianity) and natural (pagan) religion, the principles of which are based on certain eternal truths embedded within the human mind. At a particular stage of historical development, sacred texts contributed to humanity's awareness of these truths; however, the current task is to critically re-evaluate and transcend the dogmas of positive religion. This notion posits that the entirety of prior history should be regarded as a necessary phase in the journey toward the present state, rather than a series of mistakes and futile efforts by previous generations. Applying this principle to the history of the Enlightenment, Lessing contended that, in the mid-eighteenth century, Germany was not yet in a state of Enlightenment but merely in the process of moving toward it. Kant echoed this sentiment in his aforementioned essay from 1784, "What is Enlightenment?"—three years after Lessing's death—where he stated: “If one asks whether we live in an enlightened age, the answer would be: no, but perhaps we live in the age of enlightenment.” Lessing was perhaps the first to recognize the pivotal educational role of the Bible, thereby limiting the theologians' claims to consider it a more universal phenomenon.

Once, against the backdrop of Mendelssohn's critique of Spinoza's pantheism, Lessing remarked, as noted by G. Jacobi, “There is no other philosophy but the philosophy of Spinoza.” This statement, published posthumously, ignited prolonged and heated philosophical debates in Germany, undoubtedly invigorating the overall philosophical discourse.

A prominent German Enlightenment philosopher was Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803). He was the first to acknowledge the philosophy of history as an independent discipline. In the preface to his book "Ideas Toward the Philosophy of History of Mankind," Herder interprets the philosophy of history as the science of the entirety of human history. Of course, it is not suggested that the philosophy of history supplants historical science; rather, it seeks to comprehend the course of human history in its wholeness and distinct phases through philosophical means, to determine the overarching logic, meaning, possible regularities, and the specifics of historical knowledge.

Herder undoubtedly recognized the laws of historical development. Through natural evolution, humanity is destined for a dominant position on Earth, appointed to be the crown of all creation. This fate is already assured through the capacity for bipedalism, the structure of the brain, and bodily constitution. From this causal chain flows the ability for language, reason, modesty, and ultimately, the establishment of rules of truth and justice, transforming individuals into faithful helpers and brothers to one another. This culminates in the formation of the spirit of humanity, which is the true task of the philosophy of history to investigate. The history of humanity serves as a school of refinement on the path toward progressive humanity. “Human reason,” concludes Herder in "Ideas Toward the Philosophy of History of Mankind," “is propelled forward by the multiplied, united endeavors of people, and sees this as a favorable sign, even if the finest fruits do not ripen in due time.”