Philosophy of the Enlightenment

General Characteristics of Enlightenment Philosophy

The eighteenth century, in terms of its spiritual development, is aptly termed the "Age of Enlightenment," and this designation is justified from various perspectives.

Firstly, scientific knowledge, which had previously been confined to a narrow circle of scholars, became significantly more widespread. The volume of scientific knowledge grew to the extent that encyclopedias could be compiled from objectively true information. In the 1730s and 1750s, Germany saw the publication of the "Great Complete Universal Lexicon of All Sciences and Arts," consisting of 68 volumes. However, the most renowned encyclopedia of the modern era was the French "Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers," published from 1751 to 1780. This work comprised 35 volumes, including 12 volumes of illustrations, and contained 60,000 articles. While both the German and French encyclopedias primarily emphasized the humanities, their English counterparts focused more on natural sciences and technology, aligning with the needs of the industrial revolution then unfolding in England. In 1728, for instance, England produced a two-volume "Cyclopaedia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences." The French endeavor was significantly enhanced by leading philosophers and scholars of the time, including Diderot, d’Alembert, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, Turgot, and Buffon, among over sixty contributors. These encyclopedists believed that the dissemination of knowledge would promote progress and liberate humanity from superstition and tyranny. They affirmed the potency of human reason and its limitless potential, with their conviction culminating in the idea of scientific progress as a means to facilitate economic and social prosperity.

Alongside this, the philosophes of the Enlightenment ardently propagated the idea of refuting metaphysics, particularly of the Cartesian variety, which can be explained as follows. While the Renaissance and the early modern period focused on opposing scholasticism, the Enlightenment thinkers regarded metaphysics as their adversary—a system that had emerged in place of scholasticism yet was entirely contrary to the science rooted in experimentation. Metaphysics was viewed as a speculative construct and, therefore, devoid of scientific value, much like the previous scholasticism. This stance seems paradoxical concerning Descartes, who remains recognized as a great scholar. While this is indisputable, Descartes did not hold experiment and experience in high regard, preferring innate ideas instead. Under such conditions, experience was relegated to the role of demonstrator and illustrator of the outcomes derived from ideas that were, as it seemed, either inherent to the human mind or bestowed by God.

Secondly, the term "Enlightenment" also signifies the aspiration among many of its proponents for an ideal educated ruler, who could be shaped by the achievements of science. Such a ruler would leverage authority and knowledge to establish a perfect society aligned with human nature, a nature understood by the philosophers of the age.

Thirdly, Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), the German philosopher, discussed Enlightenment in a brief essay titled "What is Enlightenment?" He characterized it as a state of maturity for humanity, which, concerning the individual, denotes the ability to use one’s reason without the guidance of another. Kant asserted that every individual possesses sufficient reason to reflect upon any phenomenon of reality, with the capacity for independent thought; what is lacking is merely courage. Thus, Kant deemed the motto of the Enlightenment to be "Sapere aude," meaning "Dare to know" in this context, signifying the courage to utilize one’s intellect. The ability to form one’s own judgments regarding the phenomena of reality and to be responsible for one’s decisions and actions became a crucial characteristic of the individual emerging in the context of a new civil society, distinctly different from the typical persona of the feudal period. French Enlightenment thinkers championed "common sense" as the ability of individuals to think independently about their daily lives, taking responsibility for their choices.

Additionally, the term "Enlightenment" carries the connotation that the dissemination of objective knowledge, according to the figures of this era, illuminates the human mind, which, in its absence, is clouded by superstitions, errors, and the force of passions.

When considering the defining traits of the Enlightenment, particularly the French variant, a notable characteristic is the struggle against religion and the church. This is closely linked to the criticism of absolutism, which relied on the church's authority. During this time, any critique of the prevailing social order began with an examination of religion, for the church sanctified the social hierarchy and condemned protests against the existing regime.

Overall, optimism is a hallmark of the Enlightenment era, reflecting the mood of a burgeoning capitalist society. It is perhaps no coincidence that England served as the birthplace of Enlightenment, as capitalism began to develop here, culminating in the industrial revolution of the eighteenth century. John Locke, who passed away in 1704, is often seen as the figure who concluded the seventeenth century and ushered in the Enlightenment era in England, which David Hume would later bring to a close.

The overarching philosophical backdrop of the Enlightenment was characterized by sensualism, the idea of natural rights, equality among people, and religious tolerance. In constructing social theories, the Enlightenment thinkers drew upon the nature of the individual human being. An important theme that emerged during the philosophical reflections of the eighteenth century was the relationship between chance and necessity, fatalism and free will. Additionally, the ideas of mechanism remained influential.