Medieval Philosophy

General Characteristics of Medieval Philosophy

The concept of medieval philosophy is primarily associated not with its chronological placement, but rather with a distinctive mode of philosophical inquiry that intertwines philosophy with monotheistic religious ideology (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam). The profound dependence of philosophy on the prevailing religion shaped the specific philosophical themes proposed for discussion and the choice of their resolutions. Accordingly, the history of medieval philosophy is marked from the moment it aligns itself with the service of religion until the dissolution of this alliance. When projected onto notable figures, this period stretches from Philo of Alexandria (1st century CE) to William of Ockham and his school (14th century), although some scholars, considering the ambiguous boundaries, even include Nicholas of Cusa (1401—1464) among representatives of medieval philosophy. Notably, this philosophy commenced before the conclusion of ancient thought, which endured until the early 6th century.

Drawing primarily from the substantial research of the English scholar F. C. Copleston (1907—1994) and the contemporary Russian historian of philosophy G. G. Maiorov, we will highlight several general attributes of medieval thought in general and philosophical thought in particular. The first such characteristic is the dominance of Christian theology. Thus, the independence of purely philosophical (which implies critical) thinking was significantly constrained. The selection of themes for philosophical discussion was largely influenced by theological preconditions. It should also be noted that the vast majority of medieval philosophers were simultaneously theologians, shaped by their sincere belief in one God. When referring to this critical limitation, it is not to imply that medieval philosophers entirely refrained from questioning the foundations of their assertions: “The critique of ideas, arguments, and assumptions of other thinkers was a customary undertaking for philosophers. Medieval thinkers engaged in this task with the same readiness as philosophers of later periods.” The discussion may only concern the fact that, since Christian ideology was dominant throughout Europe at that time, there were no real grounds for critiquing medieval religious thought from alternative worldviews.

Other traits of philosophy during this era include retrospection and traditionalism, which denotes a turn to the past and reverence for tradition: Christian thinkers became convinced that the older a tenet is, the more truthful it must be, for the endurance of truth over time fortifies its validity. The Bible, being the most ancient text, stands as the sole complete collection of all possible truths imparted to humanity by God for all time. Therefore, deciphering the meanings of biblical expressions is deemed sufficient to answer all questions that humankind may pose. However, this meaning is encoded, hidden within the text. The philosopher’s task lies in exegesis, that is, the explanation and interpretation of religious texts. The closer a philosopher-exegete is to the time of revelation, the better he comprehends the mystery of correct exegesis. Conversely, the likelihood of errors increases with the passage of time. Thus, patristic thought holds the highest authority after the Bible itself. The philosophy shaped by the Church Fathers, as the first in the age of Christianity, ought to serve as a model, a classical example for any future philosophizing. Consequently, later medieval philosophers frequently refer to the authority of the Bible, patristics, or their predecessors, incessantly quoting them. Indeed, it is likely that the tradition of abundant citation in European philosophy originates from medieval authors, utilizing authoritative figures to bolster their own arguments. Any form of innovation was regarded as a sign of vain pride, a deviation from the model, and thus from truth. The philosopher’s mission is to convey to contemporaries and pass on to future generations the image of truth as it is characteristic of the archetype. To reproduce truth, the philosopher must achieve a certain identification of his subjectivity with the exemplified model.

Yet even within the confines set by tradition, the medieval philosopher possessed a degree of theoretical freedom. The most authoritative biblical text served both as a provocation and a stimulus for reflection, a catalyst for original inquiry. This is due to the belief among thinkers of that era that canonical texts are always multi-faceted, symbolic, laden with mysteries and enigmas. It is precisely this quality that opened avenues for relatively free theorizing.

A distinctive feature of medieval philosophy was didacticism. Nearly all the renowned thinkers of the Middle Ages were either preachers or educators within theological schools and universities. They concerned themselves not only with clarifying subjects for their own understanding but were even more preoccupied with how to convey and teach their comprehension of these subjects to their students and successors. Thus, the medieval thinker is, above all, a teacher. Didacticism indirectly stimulated interest in the problems of logic and linguistics, as well as some issues in epistemology. Still, this philosophy was predominantly “scholastic,” characterized by a dialogue between teacher and student, wherein the former is esteemed for erudition and pedagogical skill, while the latter is valued for diligence and aptitude for assimilation. In this context, certain philosophical genres reflecting the aspiration for dialogue became widespread:

• Compilations, that is, commentaries and dictionaries aimed at encompassing all wisdom;
• Summas (which flourished in the later Middle Ages) — logically organized treatises summarizing theoretical achievements intended as theological manuals;
• Confessions, which served as means for moral purification and public penance, not solely for personal interests but to instruct others.

In the development of medieval philosophy, several periods are distinguished: apologetics, patristics, and scholasticism.