Medieval Philosophy

Late Scholasticism

After Thomas Aquinas, the period of late scholasticism begins, spanning the 14th and 15th centuries. During this time, under the influence of new socio-political and economic conditions, oppositional movements emerged within scholasticism, some directly or indirectly disputing Thomism (the doctrine of Thomas Aquinas and his followers). A defining feature of these movements was their lack of ambition to create universal systems. Interestingly, from within the framework and method of scholasticism itself, a critique of scholasticism began to emerge. One of the significant figures of this period, heralding the critique of scholasticism, was John Duns Scotus (1270—1308). His brief life was entirely dedicated to scholarship. At the age of 23, he became a professor at Oxford, later teaching in Paris, and earned a reputation as one of the greatest philosophers of the Middle Ages. Having thoroughly studied the works of Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, and other major thinkers, Scotus came to the conclusion that the complete harmony between theology and Aristotelian philosophy, which Aquinas had attempted to restore, was impossible. Through his firm stance on this issue, Scotus laid the groundwork for the separation of philosophy and theology: philosophy deals with theoretical knowledge, while theology concerns itself with practical knowledge and moral content.

Criticism within scholasticism continued to grow, and eventually, not only Thomism but also Scotus’ teachings came under scrutiny. Both were collectively referred to as the "old way" (via antiqua), in contrast to the "new way" (via moderna) in philosophy. The proponents of the new way were united by a nominalist solution to the problem of universals.

At this time, the most developed form of nominalism was presented by William of Ockham (1290—1350). Born near London, Ockham studied and taught at Oxford and was a member of the Franciscan order. His most important philosophical works include The Ordinatio, The Questions, and The Sum of All Logic. Ockham is often called the last representative of scholasticism. As a scholastic, he was a proponent of nominalism, and it was from this perspective that he delivered a significant blow to the entire scholastic tradition. Scholastic realism posits that universals, which represent ideas and ultimately God, are more real than individual, particular things. For Ockham, however, the opposite was true: individual, concrete things are the only reality, while universals are what require further explanation. Ockham asserted that all theology should be excluded from the realm of rational explanation. Religious dogmas, he argued, not only stand beside reason but also stand in opposition to it. Through reason alone, one can only establish the probability of God's existence, making theology, as a science, impossible.

Ockham's nominalism effectively divided theology from philosophy, faith from science, and severed the connection that scholasticism had developed and reinforced over centuries. In Ockham’s era, scholastics often put forth many verbal pseudo-generalizations that became obstacles to the development of scientific knowledge. To eliminate this barrier, Ockham introduced his famous "razor" (a methodological principle), commonly phrased as: "Entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity" or "Do not multiply entities without necessity." In its historical context, this principle became a slogan for empiricism, directed against speculative-realist scholasticism.

In the final century of the Middle Ages, a radical reevaluation of the entire culture, and scholastic philosophy in particular, began. This reevaluation was undertaken by a new generation—the humanists of the Renaissance.