Medieval Philosophy

Apologetics and Patristics

Apologists were the first Christian thinkers who emerged during the era of the new religion's spread, a time marked by persecution and oppression from a pagan society and state. Some argue that the apologists were not truly philosophers but rather rhetoricians. In defending Christianity against educated pagans, the apologists raised questions about Christ to demonstrate that all that was good and rational in paganism was an expression of Christ the Logos, as if it had been infused into the human world from the very beginning.

Among Christian writers, the apologists appeared from the beginning of the second century. Notable figures included Aristides, Justin, Tatian, Athenagoras, Tertullian, and others. The first apology that has survived to this day, dated to 125 AD, was penned by Martian Aristides of Athens, directed to the Roman Emperor Hadrian (76-138), and according to some accounts, to Hadrian's successor, Antoninus Pius (86-161). In his apology, Aristides emphasizes that the world and everything in it is set in motion by an external force, which is God. God is described as unmoved, incomprehensible, ineffable, perfect, and encompassing the universe He created with His might. Furthermore, Aristides argues that no deity worshipped by the Hellenes can be considered a true God, for all their gods possess human flaws and imperfections, which do not meet the requirements for divinity. Due to erroneous perceptions of God, manifested in their own lifestyles and behaviors, conflicts, deadly wars, and grievous captivities arise. Therefore, nothing can be deemed divine except for the one God, whom all "kinds" of people—Christians, Jews, Greeks, and barbarians—should revere. Aristides firmly believes that only Christians possess a true understanding of God.

Justin Martyr lived approximately from 110 to 167 AD. Born in Samaria to Hellenic parents, he received a philosophical and rhetorical education. A pivotal moment in his religious quest was his encounter with a Christian elder near the city of Ephesus. Becoming a Christian around 132 AD, he maintained his philosophical mantle, traveling as a Christian philosopher. Justin met his martyrdom in Rome. His works include the "First Apology" (150 AD), addressed to Emperor Hadrian, the "Second Apology," and the "Dialogue with Trypho the Jew." As Justin writes in the latter, philosophy is that which leads us to God and unites us with Him. Departing from Platonism, he sought a natural religion through philosophy. While in solitude for reflection, Justin met an elderly man who began to question him about God and the soul. The Platonic nature of Justin's responses did not satisfy the elder, who remarked that if the soul is immortal, it is not because it possesses life, as Plato taught, but because it lives as God wills, existing only as long as He desires. When Justin inquired where he might read about this, the elder replied that no philosopher spoke of it, but it can be found in the Old and New Testaments. “A fire suddenly blazed in my heart,” writes Justin, “and I was filled with love for the prophets and those men who are friends of Christ; reflecting on their words, I became convinced that only this philosophy is the one that is true, steadfast, and useful. Thus, I became a philosopher.”

Justin held that Christ is the embodiment of the Word of God, and this Word, as Revelation, existed prior to Christ; therefore, all who lived according to the Word—even pagans—lived in accordance with Christ. Hence, “all that has ever been said that is true is ours,” Justin concludes.

Tatian the Assyrian (120 - c. 175) traveled extensively in his youth to acquire knowledge, earning the title of philosopher and writer. Upon arriving in Rome, he embraced Christianity and shortly before Justin's death became his disciple. The exact date of Tatian's death remains unknown. His principal work, "Address to the Greeks," was written between 166 and 171 AD. In it, he contrasts the teachings of Christians with ancient philosophy, deeming it, on behalf of all like-minded believers, “our philosophy.” He does not regard his opponents as philosophers at all, for they contradict themselves and speak as the whim dictates. Consequently, there is much discord among such “wise men,” who harbor hatred for one another and argue among themselves.

Tatian argued that it was not the Greeks who invented philosophy. Taking Homer as the founder of all barbarian wisdom and Moses as that of Christian wisdom, he asserts that “our” teaching is older than the education of the Hellenes and even predates the invention of writing itself. Many Greek sages, through their curiosity and acquaintance with the writings of Moses and similar philosophers, sought to reformulate their teachings, first to make others believe they were expressing something original, and second to obscure their own ignorance with a fabricated verbal facade, disguising the truth as mere fiction.

The God in whom Tatian believes cannot be perceived by human eyes nor adequately expressed through any art. God has no beginning in time, for He Himself is the beginning of all things. “God is Spirit,” who does not dwell in matter; rather, He is the Creator of “the spirits of things and material forms.” He is invisible and intangible, as He is the cause of both perceptible and imperceptible realities. Humans come to know God through His creation and His acts.

Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullian (160-220), from Carthage, began his career as a lawyer. After converting to Christianity, he engaged in a vigorous literary career. He is esteemed by the Catholic Church for introducing many Latinized concepts (persona, substantia, una substantia, unitas in trinitate, etc.). Tertullian also critiqued pagan philosophy, advancing a conception of pure faith, free from any claims of intellectualism. He is known as the author of paradoxes in which faith is positioned above reason, and the absurdity of a fact should only strengthen faith. For example: "The Son of God is crucified—this is not shameful, for it is worthy of shame; and the Son of God died—this is absolutely certain, for it is nonsensical; and, being buried, He rose again—this is beyond doubt, for it is impossible... All the more should we believe where it seems that one ought not to believe, for that is astonishing! What else should God's deeds be but beyond all wonder? We ourselves are amazed—but only because we believe.”

Overall, it can be said that the apologists regarded philosophy with almost hostility; they were inclined to contrast the prevailing philosophy (pagan) with the divine wisdom presented in the Bible, as well as to oppose the Christian way of life to attempts at living a virtuous life outside of Christianity, according to personal judgment. At the same time, they did not dismiss the notion that some pagans, those who approached Christianity most closely, received enlightenment precisely through philosophy.

The second phase in the development of medieval philosophy, corresponding to the period from the second to the sixth centuries, is known as the era of patristics. The activities of the patristic representatives, at least for the majority of them, coincided with a time when the Christian Church became legitimate and even began to receive state support, thus the function of apologetics, with its critical stance towards philosophy, gradually waned. The historical mission of patristics lay entirely elsewhere. It connected Christian ideology with philosophy and formed the philosophical method that characterized all subsequent centuries during which medieval philosophy existed, specifically the exegetical method.

Exegesis as a method could not have emerged until the biblical texts attained their canonical form, which precisely occurred during the era of the Church Fathers. The content of the canonized Bible provided ample grounds for philosophical reflection; however, much of the biblical text was presented without substantiation and in a figurative manner. Philosophy, by contrast, engages not in imagery but in concepts, and moreover, it involves systematic and evidential reasoning. Therefore, to construct a philosophy based on the Bible, it was necessary to translate the sacred scripture from the language of images into the language of concepts, followed by the organization of those concepts into a coherent system. This translation from one language to another necessitated proficiency in both, along with the very existence of these languages. At that time, only one conceptual philosophical language prevailed: the ancient Greek philosophy, particularly its last significant school—Neoplatonism. Such a translation, primarily utilizing Neoplatonism, was accomplished by the Church Fathers.

The distinction between Western (Latin) and Eastern (Greek) patristics is significant. The former includes figures such as Saint Jerome, Saint Ambrose, Saint Gregory the Great, and Aurelius Augustine. Among the representatives of Latin patristics, Augustine of Hippo stands out as the most authoritative philosophical figure. Born in 354 in Tagaste (modern Algeria), 240 km from Carthage, the remnants of which still exist near present-day Tunis, Augustine was the son of a Christian mother, Monica, and a pagan father, Patricius, who was a modest Roman official. He received a solid education in his homeland, primarily literary, and after encountering Cicero's works, he felt an inclination towards philosophy. His acquaintance with the Bible did not immediately convert him to Christianity; he first experienced a period of fascination with the dualistic doctrine of the Manicheans, followers of the modernizer of Eastern religions, Mani, who posited that there were two fundamental principles: one accountable for good and the human soul, and the other for evil and matter, including the body. Augustine's trust in Manicheanism wavered after his move to Rome and his interactions with Saint Ambrose in Milan, from whom he ultimately accepted baptism in 387. Upon returning to Africa, Augustine became a priest and, from 396 until his death in 430, served as the bishop of Hippo.

Augustine’s literary legacy is vast, with his most famous work being "De civitate Dei" ("The City of God"), which he wrote over the span of 13 years. Other notable works include "Confessions" and "On the Trinity." In his writings, Augustine systematically organized the Christian worldview, striving to present it as a cohesive and singularly true doctrine.

Augustine's worldview is distinctly theocentric. God, as the starting and ultimate point of human judgments and actions, is foregrounded in all aspects of his philosophy. Augustine elucidates and rigorously justifies creationism, or the belief that God created the world in all its multiplicity of phenomena. He perceives God as a personal entity who created the world and humanity from His voluntary inclination towards the act of creation. Augustine attributes to God absolute power and the constancy of the creative process. In creating a multitude of things, God was guided by the ideas of these things, which resided in His mind.

God is also the source of time; however, God Himself experiences no time, no "before" or "after," for in the realm of His thoughts—His ideas—everything exists simultaneously and eternally. Augustine’s contrast between the absolute eternity of God and the mutability of the world as we perceive it became one of the foundations of the Christian worldview.

Among the significant problems Augustine grappled with was theodicy, a term that would be coined much later by G. Leibniz to denote the defense of the perfection of God's creation. The Creator God is not responsible for the evil that pervades the world He has created. God made nature as such and human nature good, but it was the perverse will of individuals that corrupted it. Simultaneously, evil, like vice, is local; it harms specific goods rather than the Good as a synonym for God. God is not a directing cause for the evil will. "Evil will," writes Augustine, "serves as the cause of evil action; for the evil will, nothing is a cause." Evil is understood not as something absolutely opposed to good, but merely as a deficiency of good (incidentally, this argument was borrowed by Augustine from the Neoplatonists). Absolute evil does not exist; it is relative, while only good is absolute. Evil arises where things are not done as they should be; it represents a deviation from a higher goal, manifesting either as pride or an obsession with desires. Pride stems from the attempt to do without God, while obsession with desires arises from passions directed towards transient things.

From these foundations, Augustine’s ethics are constructed. Evil has an earthly origin, while good comes from God. Humanity is accountable for evil, not for good. Humans have been sinful since Adam and Eve. Sin is a rebellion of the mortal body against the immortal soul. In this state, it is no longer the soul that controls the body, for its spiritual powers have been nearly exhausted, but rather the bodily inclinations dominate the soul. Left to its own devices, humanity cannot free itself from sin. Divine assistance is necessary, for "without God’s help, we cannot lead a righteous life." Ultimately, happiness can also be granted only by God.

Regarding the soul, Augustine acknowledged its existence solely in humans. The human soul is rational, having a beginning but no end, as it exists even after the death of the body. It is immaterial and non-spatial. The principal functions of the soul are thought, memory, and will. Augustine defines the soul as "a rational substance fitted to govern the body." The essence of the soul reveals itself not so much in rational activity but in volitional capability.

In his epistemology, Augustine maintained the primacy of faith over reason. Faith in divine authority was proclaimed as the foundation and principal source of human knowledge. According to his maxim, "Believe in order to understand," faith must precede understanding. The object of philosophical knowledge is God and the human soul. The means of acquiring this knowledge are not through the senses but through intellectual self-discovery. By delving into the depths of the soul, one finds content that is entirely independent of the external world, and which is, moreover, inherent to all humans. It merely seems to people that they acquire knowledge from outside; in reality, they uncover it within the depths of their own spirit. Here, Augustine preserves the Platonic idea of the complete independence of the core content of human knowledge from experience, while knowledge and self-discovery are also interpreted as a recollection of the soul.

Augustine distinguished between science and wisdom. Knowledge that becomes science results from the intellectual exploration of the external world; it enables us to utilize things. Wisdom, however, pertains to the understanding of eternal divine matters and spiritual objects. Knowledge in itself is not evil; indeed, it is even necessary within certain limits, as humans are compelled to live in the corporeal world. Yet, one must not forget the transcendent purpose of existence, thus knowledge should not be turned into an end in itself, as though one could comprehend the world without divine assistance. Science should be subordinated to wisdom.

Augustine was the first profound philosopher of history, constructing a comprehensive theory of the historical process. The model for his theory was biblical historiography. The earthly history of humanity is bounded by two catastrophic events: 1) the Fall of Adam and Eve; 2) the Last Judgment. Everything that must transpire during this period serves the realization of the divine plan—punishing humanity for original sin, testing humanity’s ability to resist evil, calling the better part of humanity to establish a sacred society of the righteous, separating the righteous from the sinful, and ultimately rewarding each according to their merits.

In accordance with the objectives of this plan, history is divided into six periods, corresponding to biblical narratives and the six stages of human life (infancy, childhood, adolescence, youth, maturity, old age): 1) from Adam to the Flood; 2) from the Flood to Abraham; 3) from Abraham to David; 4) from David to the Babylonian Exile; 5) from the Babylonian Exile to the birth of Christ; 6) from Christ to the Last Judgment. However, Augustine is more concerned with the logic of history than with the mere classification of its periods. The elucidation of this historical logic is dedicated to his principal work, On the City of God. Here, universal history unfolds as a contradiction between two opposing categories of people—earthly and heavenly societies (“two cities”). The former lives by human standards, while the latter adheres to divine will. These are not political unions but rather moral and ideological ones. Regardless of any shortcomings this simplified scheme may have, it nonetheless introduces the concept of progress into history.

Overall, it is essential to note that Augustine laid the foundations of Christian philosophy. He completely rejected the approach of ancient philosophy to reality, which relied on rationalism and objectivism. Augustine ascribed a superiority to will over reason. At the heart of his worldview is God as a person, whose essence is will.

Regarding Eastern patristics, it is important to acknowledge the role of the First Council of Nicaea (325 AD) in its formation. This first ecumenical council was convened to overcome disagreements in interpreting the meaning of the Trinity and to resolve several organizational issues. However, its significance extends much further: it established the teachings of the Church in the form of the Nicene Creed. Henceforth, all judgments about the Divine Word were to be made in its context, and those who deviated from it were deemed heretics.

In the East, Christian writers of the 4th century remained closely tied to ancient Greek philosophy, using it to formulate dogma and combat heresies. Among the Church thinkers regarded as Eastern Fathers of the Christian Church are, foremost, the representatives of the Cappadocian School: Gregory the Theologian (Nazianzen) (330—390), Basil the Great (331—379), and Gregory of Nyssa (335—395).

The primary merit of these three Cappadocians lies in clarifying the theological significance of the terms essence and hypostasis for the interpretation of the Trinity. They drew upon the philosophical works of Neoplatonists and Aristotle. Plotinus was the first to apply the concept of three hypostases to characterize the Divine and the relationships between the One, the Spirit, and the Soul. Aristotle’s philosophy helped Basil the Great distinguish between essence and hypostasis as the difference between the general and the particular. He wrote: “Names are of two kinds. Some denote nature, such as ’man’; others have a particular significance, under which is understood not the generality of nature, but the traits of a certain thing by a characteristic that has no commonality with a kindred subject, such as ’Paul’ or ’Timothy.’” The general does not have a separate existence and is realized only through specific things. The name most fitting for God is Being (essence), denoting solely the being of God, which manifests the community of the being of God the Father, God the Son, and the Holy Spirit in a single essence. Basil the Great also provided one of the most well-known classifications of the seven deadly sins (vanity, envy, anger, sadness, avarice, gluttony, wastefulness), which stem from the root of all evil—pride.

Gregory the Theologian hailed from the vicinity of the city of Nazianzus in Cappadocia and was a presbyter there for some time, which is why he is also referred to as Nazianzen. He presided over the Second Ecumenical Council in 381, yet due to the intrigues of ecclesiastical leaders, he left the council, along with his position as Patriarch of Constantinople, which he had held since 379.

In comparing Holy Scripture and philosophy, Gregory the Theologian did not dismiss the philosophical endeavor to contemplate the world, humanity, and the human soul. He merely advocated for a measured and gradual transition for those inclined to such inquiries; one must first learn Holy Scripture, that is, become a Christian.

As for the knowledge of God, the sole path to its understanding is through the study of all that He communicated to Moses about Himself, namely: about universal being, infinite and eternal. In his work On Holy Easter, Gregory asserts that God is “like a certain sea of essence, boundless and infinite, surpassing any conception of space and nature.” However, concerning the divine mystery that God has not revealed to us, Gregory humbly pauses. How could God have begotten the Son? We do not know. Here, it is more appropriate to express a certain naïveté than to speculate: “How was He born?—I shall again, with indignation, say the same: Divine birth, and let silence be honored.”

Gregory of Nyssa was the brother of Basil the Great. One of his notable works is On the Creation of Man, which discusses the origin and essence of humanity. Without departing from the dogma of human creation by God, Gregory elucidates the meaning of being created “in the image and likeness of God.” Firstly, God “made the human essence participatory in all goodness, for if the Divine is the fullness of goodness, and humanity is its image, then the image must bear a resemblance to the Archetype, filled with every good thing. Thus, we possess a notion of everything beautiful, every virtue and wisdom, everything that one can imagine in the best sense.” Secondly, if the image of God reveals the essentially divine in humanity, then the likeness of humanity to God should be understood as a partial identification of humanity with God, manifested in the diverse hues of essence, allowing us to discern a certain image independent of the fullness of colors, lighting, etc.

According to Gregory, the universe is divided into the visible and the invisible. By body, humanity belongs to the visible world, while by soul, to the invisible. Among the visible world, humanity occupies the highest place, encompassing all other degrees of life. The human soul is the vital principle; it is a created, living, and thinking substance. Gregory denies the existence of the soul separate from the body, thereby rejecting the possibility of reincarnation. The soul and body are created by God simultaneously. The human embryo already contains the whole person; the soul constructs the human body, unfolds its abilities, and provides organs for their realization. To search for the location of the soul within the body is a futile endeavor; it is present everywhere. Even after death, the soul does not separate from the elements constituting the body. This underpins the Christian belief in the resurrection of the bodies, namely those in which people have died. The possession of reason and speech in humanity leads Gregory to conclude the existence of a higher Reason, which generates the Word. Only the Divine Word is not fleeting and ephemeral, as ours is, but eternal.

Gregory explains the existence of evil as follows. Able to choose between good and evil, humanity chose evil; rather, humanity made an unfortunate choice, opting for sensuality, which has since predominated in humanity. The body, infected by the filth of the soul, became mortal. Yet God foresaw sin and therefore created humanity male and female, so that the lineage might continue and people could find their way back to God.

The works attributed to the so-called Dionysius the Areopagite played a significant role in the formation and development of medieval philosophy, around which certain mythological layers remain undispersed even today. Little is certain about his life, but he is credited with a collection of works known as Areopagitica, which includes On the Celestial Hierarchy, On the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy, On Divine Names, Mystical Theology, and Epistles. These works were likely written in the late 4th or early 5th century (as they contained ideas from Proclus) and are linked to the origins of Eastern patristics. The main focus for Dionysius is the synthesis of Christianity and Neoplatonism, that is, the attempt to express Christian doctrine in the terms of Neoplatonic philosophy. This pertains to the interpretation of the Christian dogma of the Trinity through the Neoplatonic teaching about the One, the Christian understanding of divine creation, and the Neoplatonic idea of emanation, among others. Dionysius the Areopagite's influence on medieval thought is primarily marked by his ideas regarding the knowledge of God and the language we use in this endeavor. Like Proclus, Dionysius distinguishes two cognitive approaches to God: the negative (apophatic) and the affirmative (cataphatic). The first approach recognizes the incommensurability of human concepts concerning God, the impossibility of measuring God by the same standards with which we measure the things of our familiar world. The second approach (positive) emphasizes a certain possibility to describe God the Creator using the words we employ when describing finite divine creations, which are entirely compatible with the infinite spiritual essence of God. The relationship between these two methods became a virtually pervasive theme throughout the entire history of medieval philosophy.