The Spirit in Man and Society

Cognition as Spiritual Activity: Scientific Cognition

Forms and Methods of Scientific Cognition

Since science is not merely a repository of knowledge but an activity dedicated to its acquisition, it necessitates a methodology, while the results of scientific inquiry materialize in specific forms. It is pertinent to recall that a method (from the Greek μέθοδος) is a manner of action, a set of measures aimed at achieving a particular objective or solving problems. Methodology refers either to a multitude of methods or, alternatively, to the science of methods of cognition as a distinct section of epistemology. To better illuminate the interrelationship of various methods and forms of scientific inquiry, as well as the connection between modes of investigation and ways of organizing the acquired knowledge, it is expedient to distinguish two levels of scientific cognition—empirical and theoretical.

The empirical level encompasses those forms and methods that are directly associated with scientific practice, specifically those activities in science through which scientific material is accumulated, categorized, and generalized. Among these are scientific observation, experimentation, scientific facts, and the means of their processing. The theoretical level includes methods of cognitive activity, as well as ways of organizing knowledge and all forms of its embodiment, which are related to the formulation of scientific theory. This entails the theory itself, scientific laws, ideas, hypotheses, logical tools, and so forth. In the realm of actual scientific practice, both levels are undeniably interconnected. Let us explore some fundamental methods and forms of scientific cognition from both levels.

Observation is a crucial cognitive process at the empirical level. It constitutes a deliberate perception of an object, conducted either directly or through instruments. It is essential not to transpose our mundane notions of observation onto scientific contexts. Scientific observation is deemed valid only when it is subordinated to the resolution of a scientific problem; it yields factual material that substantiates or refutes a given hypothesis and gathers data for new theoretical generalizations. The intentionality, organization, and systematic nature of observation reflect the active engagement of the subject of cognition. A characteristic feature of scientific observation is that the subject typically does not intervene in the objective process itself and, in some sciences, even seeks to remain unnoticed (as in ethology, social psychology, sociology). Since observation is our sensory activity, it possesses naturally limited capabilities. For instance, humans can perceive electromagnetic oscillations as visual sensations only within the range of 390 to 750 nanometers, and mechanical oscillations as sound only in the frequency range of 20 to 20,000 hertz. Some of these limitations are mitigated by devices and instruments. There are amplifying instruments (like microscopes and telescopes) and substitute instruments (like magnetometers). Due to the application of instruments and their subsequent widespread use in modern science, some researchers have questioned the outcomes of scientific observations, claiming that the instrument, by interacting with the object, provides the subject with a distorted view of the actual state of affairs. Such concerns certainly have objective grounds, yet scientists account for them in their final conclusions by incorporating specific corrections, adjustments, and practical validations.

Experimentation, in contrast to observation, entails the active intervention of the subject in the processes of the external world for the sake of knowledge acquisition. It involves a purposeful influence on the object through its extraction and isolation from incidental circumstances that obscure its inherent nature. During an experiment, several objectives are achieved: the object of cognition is isolated, the course of the process is repeatedly reproduced under strictly controlled conditions, and conditions are systematically varied to obtain specific results. Experiments are classified according to scientific disciplines (physical, biological, social, etc.), with distinctions also made between field and laboratory experiments, as well as direct and model experiments. In contemporary science, the model experiment has gained extraordinary prevalence. To understand its essence, the concept of a model is of paramount importance. In specialized literature, a model is defined as a system that exists either in reality or in thought, which, by replicating the object of study, can replace it such that its examination yields new information about that object. The construction of a model and its subsequent investigation, whether conceptually or through actual experimentation, is termed modeling.

The immediate objective of both scientific observation and experimentation is the accumulation of scientific facts. The term "fact" (from Latin factum—made, deed, act) is used in two senses: either as a particular event or phenomenon, or as an empirical statement or proposition describing an event that results from cognition. Considering the first meaning, but also bearing in mind the second, we can assert that a fact comprises events, phenomena, or processes that have entered the domain of scientific cognition and have been recorded through observation or experimentation. In science, facts are articulated through language. Scientific theories are not based on isolated facts but rather on their system; thus, facts require processing and examination. The methods of investigating and processing facts include analysis, synthesis, and systematization (as the process of grouping and classifying), as well as mathematical methods. Consequently, the "output" of the empirical level of scientific inquiry consists of facts and their descriptions. In a sense, the empirical level concludes with an answer to the question "how?"—that is, how does the objective state of affairs appear.

The procedure of description is also part of the empirical level. Description encompasses the entire system of recording data from observations or experiments using accepted scientific notations. Both natural and artificial languages are employed for description, incorporating specialized terms, rules, symbols, graphs, and so forth. Description cannot be considered complete in isolation; facts still require explanation, determination of causal (cause-and-effect) relationships among phenomena, and an answer to the question "why?"—that is, why, for what reasons, does the state of affairs manifest in this particular way?

The transition from the empirical to the theoretical level signifies a shift from facts to theory. In this process, methods of induction and deduction are extensively utilized. Induction is the progression from knowledge of individual facts to knowledge of the general, whereby conclusions about the general properties of objects of a certain class are drawn from the investigation of specific facts. Inductive conclusions also encompass reasoning by analogy. However, while induction entails moving from knowledge of the particular to general knowledge, analogy involves transitioning from knowledge of one object (system) to knowledge of another object (system). The inductive method also includes the method of model extrapolation, which is the application of knowledge gained from studying a model to the actual object, utilizing the coefficient of similarity between the model and the object across various parameters. Deduction, conversely, is the method of transitioning from general propositions to particular ones, or, in other terms, it is the derivation of new truths from already known truths according to the rules of logic. For instance, if proposition A entails proposition B, and A is true, then B must also be true. The distinction between induction and deduction lies in the fact that, in the former, we possess probable knowledge regarding the truth, whereas in the latter, we have knowledge that is unequivocally true.

In the journey between empirical and theoretical knowledge, a crucial role is played by the hypothesis. A hypothesis (from Greek ύπόθεσις—assumption) is a probabilistic assertion regarding a significant connection between phenomena. It constitutes a statement whose truth or falsity has yet to be established. The formulation of hypotheses must adhere to specific criteria, as not every assumption qualifies as a scientific hypothesis. It is deemed that a new assumption, aspiring to be recognized as a genuine hypothesis, should not contradict already known and verified facts; it must elucidate the facts for which it (the assumption) is posited and anticipate new facts; it should not contradict other theories whose truth is no longer in doubt; it must meet the criterion of being amenable to experimental verification; and it should be capable of being deductively elaborated into a series of consequential statements. If the proposed hypothesis passes through these and some other tests, it is regarded as scientifically substantiated and subsequently, following practical validation, either transforms into a theory or is dismissed. A theory (from Greek θεωρία—contemplation) is reliable, true knowledge that exists as a system of logically interconnected statements concerning essential relationships among various aspects of reality. In a theory, there are fundamental concepts and assertions (laws, ideas). The theoretical block may also encompass the concept, which signifies either a particular mode of understanding a phenomenon or a leading ideological design. The primary functions of a theory are to explain causal relationships among events and to predict new phenomena and processes.

Schematic representation of the overall movement of scientific cognition appears as follows: initially, a problem is recognized and formulated, which embodies a contradiction between new facts and the explanatory possibilities of an old theory; to elucidate new facts, a hypothesis is proposed, which, after verification, transforms into a new theory.