Glossary

A posteriori (from Latin a posteriori - literally "later" or "after experience," "on the basis of experience") - a term used to characterize human knowledge as that which arises through experience.

A priori (from Latin a priori - literally "without prior," alternatively "originally" or "before experience") - a term that pertains to views on the source of knowledge and the process of cognition. Proponents of apriorism maintained that individuals possess innate (pre-experiential) basic ideas from which knowledge unfolds through deduction.

Activity - a qualitatively distinct mode of interaction between humans and their environment, characterized by intentionality, mediation through artificially crafted tools, compatibility, and more.

Anomie - a state of society in which a significant portion of its members either negatively or indifferently regards the norms that pertain to them.

Anthroposociogenesis - the process of the origin of humanity and society.

Apologetics (from Greek apologia - a defense speech, letter, or work aimed at defending something) - a period in the development of medieval philosophy when the Christian religion faced oppression and persecution, necessitating its defense against pagan culture and philosophy in particular.

Atman - a term from ancient Indian philosophy with several meanings: body, breath, individual human soul, or as a universal soul identical to Brahman. The Upanishads also suggest that Atman is the spiritual "self" of each person.

Axiology (from Greek axios — value) - a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of values, their types, interconnections, dynamics within a socio-historical context, and their role in individual life.

Being - the foundational category of philosophy asserting that the world, the totality of things and processes, is present and existing. The category of "being" emphasizes the fact of existence of various objects and phenomena.

Brahman - a philosophical category in ancient Indian philosophy used to express a certain common spiritual foundation of all that exists.

Buddhism - an ancient Indian philosophical school and religion founded by Siddhartha Shakyamuni, or Buddha (563-483 BCE). The school posits that existence is an interaction of finite elements of "matter," "spirit," and "forces," collectively referred to as dharma. The world process involves the interaction of 72 types of elements (dharmas) and tends toward tranquility and eventual extinction. A crucial concept in Buddhism is nirvana, which signifies complete tranquility, extinction, and sometimes death. The goal of human life is liberation from suffering and the attainment of nirvana.

Category in philosophy refers to the most general concepts (from Greek: κατηγορία - expression, property, definition, judgment).

Catharsis (from Greek: κάθαρσις - purification, healing) is a category in ancient Greek philosophy and aesthetics, signifying the liberation (purification) of the soul from passions under the influence of various factors (e.g., art, philosophy).

Civilization refers to the cultural aspect, encompassing the entirety of the material world created by humanity (artifacts), as carriers of knowledge, skills, and abilities that enable the adaptation of external phenomena and processes to meet material needs.

Conceptualism is a philosophical position during the medieval era that acknowledged the existence of general concepts (concepts) in the human mind as a particular form of knowing reality.

Concept refers to a specific way of understanding a phenomenon or a leading ideological design.

Confucianism is the teaching of the ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius (551-479 BCE) and his followers, emphasizing moral and political issues.

Consciousness—in a broad sense—expresses all the mental processes inherent to humanity, allowing one to assert that spirituality manifests in individuals as consciousness. In a narrower sense, consciousness refers specifically to the highest form of spiritual awareness that individuals possess regarding themselves and the surrounding world; that is, reason and thought.

Creationism (from Latin: creatio - creation, generation) is a theological concept positing that the entire world, in all its forms, was created by God.

Culture is the social program of activity and the collective values, perceptions of the world, and rules of behavior that are common to large groups of people.

Customs are the generally accepted order and rules of social behavior that have arisen spontaneously.

Darshanas - philosophical schools of the Vedic tradition: Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, Vedanta.

Deduction - a method of transition from general propositions to specific ones, or otherwise, the derivation of new truths from already known truths according to logical rules.

Description is a system for recording data from observations or experiments using accepted scientific notation.

Deviant Behavior - a type of behavior that results from a rupture between norms-goals and socially approved means of achieving them.

Dogmatism (from Greek dogma - thought, doctrine) - a mode of thinking in terms of dogmas (unchanging positions). Dogmatism is characterized by uncritical acceptance of dogmas and conservative thinking. In philosophy, dogmatism manifests as the acceptance of certain positions as absolutely valid. Skepticism and criticism oppose dogmatism.

Dualism (Latin dualis - double) - a philosophical system that recognizes two equal yet opposing principles; for instance, in Descartes, this refers to the bodily and spiritual substances.

Eidos (Greek: εἶδος - form, image) is a term from ancient philosophy that initially referred to anything visible, but over time acquired a more abstract meaning: the concrete realization of the abstract. In the philosophy of Plato, eidos is understood as the inner form of things and even gains an ontologically independent status: the eidos constitute a transcendent world of perfect exemplars of possible things.

Entelechy (from Greek: ἐντελέχεια - "having its end within itself") refers to the inner force that possesses a purpose and an ultimate result, thereby ensuring the realization of a thing in its intended purpose, according to Aristotle.

Epicureanism is the philosophical school of the Hellenistic period founded by Epicurus (342-271 BCE).

Epistemology (from Greek gnosis - knowledge + logos - doctrine) - a branch of philosophy that investigates the cognitive relationship between humanity and the world, the conditions, types, and forms of knowledge, and the problem of truth.

Euthanasia signifies a painless death.

Evolutionism is a philosophical-historical position that acknowledges the universal historical "logic" of changes within all societies, moving toward an increasingly complex structure of the social whole, the differentiation of society across various dimensions, the rise in the number of inventions and technological advancements, and the growth of labor distribution, among other factors.

Exegesis (from Greek: ἐξήγησις - interpretation, explanation) in theology pertains to the interpretation of biblical texts and the elucidation of their meanings.

Experiment involves the active intervention of the subject in the processes of the external world for the purpose of knowledge. It is characterized by a purposeful influence on the object through its extraction and isolation from incidental circumstances that conceal its true nature.

Fact refers to an event, phenomenon, or process that has entered the realm of scientific knowledge and has been recorded through observation or experimentation.

Generation refers to a group of people within the same phase of life.

Hellenism is the period in ancient history from the beginning of Alexander the Great's campaigns (334-323 BCE) to the Roman conquest of the states that formed within the territory of his empire (1st century BCE). Philosophically, the period of Hellenism is extended to the 2nd century CE, with new philosophical schools emerging during this era—Epicureanism, skepticism, and Stoicism.

History, in its most immediate sense, denotes the existence of social reality in time.

Human beings are distinguished by the presence of culture, which is inherited not genetically but transmitted and developed through language, education, and imitation based on transformative activity. One can also conceive of humanity as a socio-cultural form of existence for the biological entity known as Homo sapiens.

Hypothesis (from Greek hypothesis - assumption) - a probabilistic assumption about the essential connection between phenomena.

Idealism (French: idéalisme, through Latin: idealis, from Greek: ἰδέα - idea) is a philosophical worldview that posits that the foundation of existence lies in a spiritual principle. From an epistemological perspective, idealism holds that a person possesses a certain prior knowledge (independent of experience) that clarifies, organizes, and shapes their initial intuitions into a logically coherent conceptual framework. The idealist is inclined to believe that the principles of science and philosophy can be justified without transcending their own (or humanity's) consciousness. The term gained currency in the 18th century.

Ideal is a concentrated expression of norms of perfection, exemplifying conduct and the goal-oriented direction of life’s activities.

Induction is the process of moving from the knowledge of individual facts to an understanding of the general, wherein conclusions about the general properties of objects within a certain class are drawn based on the examination of specific facts.

Intelligentsia (from Latin: intelligentia - understanding, reason, cognitive power) is, in Kant's terms, the capacity of the subject to imagine what is inherently unreachable by sensation.

Jainism - an ancient Indian philosophical doctrine attributed to Vardhamana (599-527 BCE). Followers of the doctrine assert that all living beings possess souls, which, as guiding substances, direct the body toward successful functioning. They recognize karma as the force of passions and desires that ensnare the soul. The goal of life is liberation from karma.

Karma (the law of retribution) is a term from ancient Indian philosophy that signifies the totality of good and virtuous actions performed by an individual in their previous existences, where a particular overall balance of actions determines the individual’s subsequent fate.

Law is a form of conscious organization of social life through the enactment of norms and imperatives by a legitimate and singular authority (the state), their systematic and coercive enforcement, and monitoring of compliance by all members of society without exception.

Legalism is an ancient Chinese philosophical school founded by Shang Yang (390-338 BCE), also known as the school of law-makers (Fazjia). It was concerned with issues of governance based on strict adherence to laws and harsh punishment for offenses.

Logos (Greek: λόγος) is a multifaceted term introduced into philosophy by ancient Greek thinkers, denoting "word," "speech," "thought," "reason," and "law."

Lokayata (also known as Charvaka) is an ancient Indian philosophical school that stands in opposition to the Vedic tradition. This school rejects the notion of an original spiritual reality and the immortality of the soul, positing instead that the world (including humanity) is composed of four material elements: earth, water, fire, and air.

Materialism (from the Latin materialis, meaning "substantial" or "physical") is a philosophical worldview asserting that matter (objective reality) is the ontological primary concerning the spiritual, which is derived from the material. From an epistemological perspective, materialism posits that principles are not pre-applied (derived from reason) to nature and human history, but rather abstracted from them. Thus, it follows that nature and humanity do not align with principles; rather, principles are true only insofar as they correspond to nature and history.

Matter is a concept encompassing everything that exists objectively, that is, outside of human consciousness.

Metaphysics (from the Greek ta meta ta physika, meaning "that which comes after physics") is a branch of philosophy that clarifies the foundational principles and causes of existence. Since antiquity, metaphysics has been understood as the philosophical doctrine concerning the first principles and causes of all that exists. The critical stance toward traditional metaphysics was initiated in the 18th century by David Hume and Immanuel Kant. Later, Hegel attributed to this term a meaning associated with anti-dialectical thinking. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, there were attempts both to refute any metaphysics and to provide revised versions of it. Today, one may assert that it is not metaphysics that is devalued, but rather that its paradigms are shifting, resulting in three forms of metaphysics being distinguished in its history: ontological metaphysics, transcendental philosophy of consciousness, and transcendental semiotics.

Methodology is the science of methods of cognition, considered a special branch of epistemology; in another sense, this term expresses a multitude of methods.

Method (from the Greek μέθοδος) refers to a means of action, a set of measures aimed at achieving a specific goal or solving problems.

Modeling refers to the construction of a model and its subsequent exploration through thought or actual experimentation.

Model (from the French modele, meaning "example") is a system that exists either in reality or in thought, which, by replicating the object of study, can replace it such that its examination provides the researcher with new information about that object.

Moism is an ancient Chinese philosophical school founded by Mozi (Mo Di, 479—400 BCE), which stood in opposition to Confucianism. This school focused primarily on ethical and governance issues.

Monadology is Leibniz's doctrine concerning monads.

Monad (in the philosophy of G.W. Leibniz) is a simple, indivisible substance.

Monism (from the Greek μονάζ, meaning "unit") is a philosophical system in which all varieties of existence are ultimately reduced to a single principle.

Myth is a fantastical fabrication that explains the origin or essence of an object or phenomenon by attributing human concepts and properties to it.

Natural environment is that part of nature that surrounds humans and influences them, as well as that which they themselves affect through their productive activities. Until the latter half of the 20th century, the term "geographical environment" was used to denote a part of nature, specifically the Earth's geographical shell, within which historical processes unfold. Today, the term "natural environment" has become standard, as technological progress has demonstrated that the geographical shell no longer confines the spatial limits of human activity.

Nature in philosophy is employed in several senses. In a broad sense, nature is synonymous with matter. This sense of nature encompasses society as well. In a narrower sense, nature refers to the immediate objective environment in which human history unfolds, that with which humans constantly interact. An additional sense of "nature" is often highlighted when underscoring the essence of something (for example, "the nature of humanity").

Nominalism (from the Latin nomina, meaning "names") is a philosophical position from the medieval period that denied the real existence of universals, asserting that the universal exists only as a name following things.

Noosphere is a concept that embodies the idea of the necessity for a rational organization of the relationships between society and nature by united humanity.

Observation is the intentional perception of the object of scientific inquiry, conducted either directly or through instruments.

Ontology (from Latin ontologia derived from the Greek όντος, meaning "being," and λόγος, meaning "study" or "science") is a branch of philosophy that addresses the most general questions of being, such as its forms, structure, properties, space, time, motion, and so forth.

Patristics (from the Latin patres, meaning "fathers," or "church fathers") denotes a period in the development of medieval philosophy when the Christian religion gained legitimacy and state support. Patristics connected Christian ideology with philosophy and developed an exegetical method of philosophizing.

Philosophy of History is a domain of philosophical knowledge concerning the meaning of history, the essence and logic of historical processes, their direction, subjects, and driving forces of history.

Philosophy is a systematic contemplation of the surrounding world and humanity based on the critical power of individual reason.

Pluralism (from the Latin pluralis, meaning "numerous") is a philosophical system asserting the existence of multiple or countless independent principles of being.

Politics is the activity directed towards achieving and implementing power that extends over society as a whole.

Power - the domination and control of some individuals over the consciousness and behavior of others.

Pre-Socratics - ancient Greek philosophical schools and doctrines that developed before Socrates (469-399 BCE), such as the Milesian school, Eleatics, and Atomists. Pre-Socratic doctrines predominantly engaged with ontological issues. Socrates initiated an anthropological turn in ancient Greek philosophy, placing human concerns at the center of philosophical inquiry.

Realism (from Latin realis - actual) is a philosophical stance from the medieval period that ascribes true existence solely to general concepts and universals.

Reality is a term that emphasizes the presence of being, actual being, as distinct from, for instance, potential being or that which has already been lost.

Relations - a manner of interdependent existence of objects of a certain identity, the essence of which lies in their real potential to inevitably enter into actual connections and interactions under appropriate conditions through the mediation of mechanical, physicochemical, and other processes.

Samsara—a term from ancient Indian philosophy—denotes the eternal cycle of life and death. The goal of life is to attain an inner liberation from this cycle.

Science is systematic, theoretical knowledge that develops; it is also a particular type of intellectual activity oriented toward acquiring such knowledge that can serve as the theoretical foundation for any other human endeavor.

Skepticism is a philosophical school of the Hellenistic era, founded by Pyrrho (c. 360—275 BCE).

Social Norm is a form of representation of societal relations at the level of human behavior.

Social Order consists of established types of coordinated interactions among individuals, regulated either by spontaneously formed or consciously established rules.

Social Philosophy is a branch of philosophical knowledge that specifically investigates the qualitative uniqueness of society, the structure, and the interrelations of various components within the social whole from the most general perspectives.

Social Reality encompasses the total activities of individuals and their direct and indirect aggregate results.

Social Relations represent the manner of collectively interdependent existence among certain groups of people, the essence of which (this manner) is reduced to the presence of a real possibility for them to engage necessarily in a current interaction through activities and their products.

Society is a systemic unity of the social results of human activities.

Solipsism (from Latin solus - only one + ipse - self) is a philosophical position that recognizes only the thinking subject as the sole reality.

Sophism (Greek σόφισμα - cunning, trick) refers to a false conclusion structured to appear correct at first glance. In ancient Greek philosophy, sophisms were employed to achieve victory in discussions at any cost.

Sophists are the ancient Greek philosophers ("teachers of wisdom") who regarded knowledge as relative, denied the objectivity of truth, and utilized sophisms.

Soul - a concept that reflects an individual's perception of their spiritual complex in its entirety.

Space is a mode of coexistence for objects when they are coordinated next to one another, positioned side by side.

Spiritual (Mental) - a general term for phenomena of the human psyche, such as thoughts, sensations, and emotions, which are partially encompassed by the concept of consciousness.

Spirit - in relation to humanity, this term expresses the totality of phenomena of the human psyche and its qualitative state, representing that class of properties of humanity that is opposed to corporeal (physical) properties; it serves as a comprehensive term for all that constitutes the "inner world" of humanity, encompassing knowledge, emotions, images, perceptions, and more.

State - a political organization that administers society and possesses characteristics such as the presence of public authority, taxation of the populace, territorial boundaries of authoritative capabilities, and legal rights.

Stoicism is a philosophical school of the Hellenistic era, founded by Zeno (c. 333—262 BCE).

Structure (from Latin structura - construction; arrangement, order) refers to the set of established connections of an object that ensure its form as given, identical to itself.

Substance—in a broad sense—indicates a self-sufficient fundamental essence (substance, basis, cause) of the existent. In a narrower sense, this term pertains to the substratum that bears the fundamental properties of a particular kind of being.

System is an object characterized by wholeness, organization, and the presence of informational flows and connections that constitute its integrity.

Taoism - an ancient Chinese philosophical school founded by Laozi (604-531 BCE). It advocates for the principle of following naturalness as the correct path of life (dao).

The Meaning of Life denotes the substantial fulfillment of existence, reflecting an individual's understanding of their purpose in the world, their directed goals, and value orientation—essentially, what makes it worthwhile to live one’s life.

The School of Names (Minjia) refers to an ancient Chinese philosophical school. By analogy with the ancient Greek mode of philosophical inquiry, representatives of this school are referred to as sophists, and in relation to currents of European medieval philosophy, this school is sometimes called the school of nominalists. The school focused on the relationships between things and the expression of these relationships in judgments.

The Social (from Latin socius - common, shared; one who is in alliance) implies compatibility, community, and aggregation, also indicating kinds of collectivity from the viewpoint of subjects engaged in joint activity, types of interaction, and results of actions, reflecting the aforementioned aggregate in human consciousness.

The World signifies a complete totality of the reality revealed to humankind.

The content of history refers to the totality of facts regarding the change of types of sociality and the varieties and forms of human activity.

The scientific worldview refers to a cohesive system of specific scientific knowledge about the universe or its particular parts and sections (in this case, one might speak of the physical, biological, geographical, etc., worldview).

Theodicy (from Latin theodicea - justification of God, from Greek θεός, "God" + δίκη, "justice") is a religious-philosophical doctrine that justifies the goodness of God despite the existence of evil in the world.

Theory (from Greek θεωρία - contemplation) is reliable, true knowledge that exists as a specific system of logically interconnected statements regarding the essential connections among various aspects of reality.

The problem concerning science signifies a contradiction between new facts and the explanatory capacities of an old theory.

Time is the manner of change in the states of objects, where this change occurs sequentially, one after another.

Tradition is a mechanism for the reproduction of social institutions and norms, whereby their maintenance is legitimized solely by the fact of their existence in the past.

Transcendental—in Kantian philosophy—refers to characteristics of the conditions for possible experience, through which knowledge is achieved (from Latin transcendo - to pass over).

Transcendent—in Kantian philosophy—refers to a judgment about a subject that never occurs and cannot occur in human experience, e.g., God, the world as a whole, etc.

Truth is the correspondence of thoughts to reality.

Universals are general concepts, overarching ideas. The nature of universals has been the subject of extensive debate in medieval philosophy.

Value is a term used: a) to signify the presence of a corresponding quality in something; this meaning is felt when characterizing objects and phenomena as "valuable" or "of worth"; b) to denote those components of spirituality that reflect the specific attitudes of individuals toward natural, social, and spiritual phenomena in terms of their significance.

Vedas - collections of hymns, songs, magical spells, and ritual formulas. They are composed of several groups: Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads. The Upanishads played a fundamental role in the formation of ancient Indian philosophy. The oldest texts of Vedic literature date back to the middle of the second millennium BCE.

Worldview is a system of general perspectives on the world and the individual's place within it, encompassing one’s relationship to the surrounding reality and to oneself; it represents the most generalized views regarding the meaning of life and the goals of human existence.

Yin-Yang School is an ancient Chinese philosophical school advocating the doctrine of Yin and Yang, primarily concerned with natural philosophical questions.