Scholastics

Islamic Culture and Philosophy

The assaults faced by the Eastern Empire, Africa, and Spain differed in two respects from the invasions of northern barbarians against the Western Empire: first, the Eastern Empire endured until 1453, nearly a thousand years longer than its western counterpart; second, the primary blows against the Eastern Empire were struck by Muslims, who, after their conquests, did not convert to Christianity but instead established their own significant civilization.

The Hijra, which marked the beginning of the Islamic era, occurred in 622 CE; ten years later, Muhammad passed away. Immediately following his death, the Arabs commenced their conquests, which progressed with remarkable swiftness. In the East, Syria was invaded in 634 and was fully subjugated within two years. Persia fell victim to invasion in 637, and by 650, its conquest was complete. In 664, the Arabs invaded India, and they besieged Constantinople in 669 (and again in 716—717). The movement westward was somewhat less rapid; they conquered Egypt in 642, but Carthage was taken only in 697. Except for a small corner in the northwest of the country, Spain was annexed to the Arab territories between 711 and 712. The Muslim advance westward (excluding Sicily and Southern Italy) was halted by their defeat at the Battle of Tours in 732, exactly one hundred years after the prophet’s death. (The Ottoman Turks, who ultimately conquered Constantinople, belong to a later period than that which we are currently examining.)

Various circumstances facilitated the Muslims' advance. Persia and the Eastern Empire were drained by prolonged civil wars. The Syrians, largely adhering to Nestorianism, faced persecution from Catholics, while the Muslims were tolerant of all sects of Christianity, demanding tribute in return. In Egypt, the Monophysites, who constituted the majority of the population, also welcomed the invaders. In Africa, the Arabs allied with the Berbers, who the Romans had never fully subdued. Together, the Arabs and Berbers invaded Spain, where they were joined by Jews, who had suffered severe persecution under the Visigoths.

The religion of the prophet was a simple monotheism, unencumbered by the intricate theology of doctrines such as the Trinity and transubstantiation. The prophet did not claim divinity; nor did his followers assert such claims on his behalf. He revived the Jewish prohibition against idols and forbade the consumption of wine. The duty of the faithful is to conquer, in the name of Islam, as many lands as possible, but they should not persecute Christians, Jews, or Zoroastrians—“the People of the Book,” as they are called in the Quran, those who adhere to the teachings of the Sacred Scriptures.

Much of Arabia was a desert, increasingly unable to provide sustenance for its inhabitants. The initial Arab conquests began as mere raids for plunder, and only after experience revealed the weakness of their enemies did these incursions transform into a sustained occupation. In a span of about twenty years, people accustomed to the hardships of sparse existence on the edge of the desert found themselves masters of some of the wealthiest lands in the world, where all pleasures and the refinements of ancient civilization were at their disposal. The Arabs resisted the temptations of this turning point more steadfastly than the northern barbarians. Since they conquered their empire without exceptionally brutal struggles, the destruction was minimal, and the previous civil administration remained largely unchanged. Both in Persia and the Eastern Empire, the organization of civil governance was at a high level. Initially, members of Arab tribes were unfamiliar with its intricacies and were compelled to utilize the services of the skilled officials they found at the heads of various departments. Most of these officials willingly transitioned to serve their new masters. Indeed, the change even eased their duties, as taxation was significantly reduced. Furthermore, many residents converted from Christianity to Islam to avoid paying tribute.

The Arab Empire was an absolute monarchy, ruled by a caliph, who was considered the successor of the prophet and inherited much of his sanctity. Formally, the caliph's power was elective, but it soon became hereditary. The first dynasty, the Umayyads, ruled until 750 and was founded by those who adopted Muhammad's teachings purely for political reasons; this dynasty was always opposed by the more fanatical elements among the faithful. Although the Arabs conquered vast territories in the name of their new religion, they were not particularly religious people; the driving force behind their conquests was not religion but the thirst for plunder and wealth. Only because the Arabs were free from fanaticism could a handful of warriors manage, without great difficulty, to govern a vast population that was at a higher level of civilization and adhered to a foreign faith.

In contrast, the Persians had long been marked by deep religiosity and an extraordinary inclination toward abstract thinking. After their conversion to Islam, they transformed it into something far more interesting, more religious, and more philosophical than what was envisioned by the prophet and his kin. After 661, when Muhammad’s son-in-law Ali died, Muslims divided into two sects—the Sunnis and the Shiites. The Sunnis form the majority; the Shiites are followers of Ali and consider the Umayyad dynasty usurpers. The Persians have always belonged to the Shiite sect. Ultimately, primarily due to Persian influence, the Umayyads were overthrown, and the Abbasids managed to establish their rule, representing the interests of Persia. The change of dynasty was marked by the transfer of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad.

Politically, the Abbasids supported the fanatics more than the Umayyads did. However, they were unable to bring the entire empire under their control. One member of the Umayyad house managed to escape the general extermination, fled to Spain, and was recognized as a legitimate ruler there. From that time onward, Spain became independent of the rest of the Muslim world.

Under the early Abbasids, the caliphate reached the zenith of its greatness. The most renowned among them was Harun al-Rashid (d. 809), a contemporary of Charlemagne and Empress Irene; his legendary figure is familiar to all through the tales of "One Thousand and One Nights." The court of Harun al-Rashid was a brilliant center of luxury, poetry, and learning; the revenues of his treasury were colossal; his empire stretched from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Indus. The will of Harun al-Rashid was absolute; a headsman usually accompanied him, ready to carry out executions at the slightest nod from the caliph. However, this grandeur proved short-lived. Harun al-Rashid's successor made the mistake of forming his army primarily from Turks, who proved rebellious and soon reduced the caliph to the status of a puppet; when the caliph bored the soldiers, they would blind or kill him. Nonetheless, the caliphate continued to drag on in a wretched existence; the last caliph from the Abbasid dynasty was killed by the Mongols in 1256, along with 800,000 inhabitants of Baghdad.

The political and social system of the Arabs suffered from deficiencies similar to those of the Roman Empire, along with additional flaws. Absolute monarchy combined with polygamy typically led to dynastic wars whenever a ruler died; these conflicts ended with the victory of one of the ruler’s sons and the death of all others. The caliphate had a significant number of slaves, replenished mainly through successful wars; at times, slaves would rise up in dangerous revolts. Trade was highly developed, facilitated by the central position of the caliphate between East and West. “Besides the fact that the possession of vast wealth created a demand for expensive luxury items, such as silks from China and furs from Northern Europe, several unique conditions aided the development of trade, including the immense expanse of the Muslim empire, the spread of the Arabic language as a global tongue, and the high esteem in which merchants were held within the ethical system of Islam; it is important to remember that the prophet himself was a merchant and praised commerce during his pilgrimage to Mecca.” This trade, as well as military communications, relied on the state of the great roads inherited from the Romans and Persians, which, unlike those of the northern conquerors, were not allowed to fall into disrepair. However, over time, the empire gradually fragmented; Spain, Persia, North Africa, and Egypt managed to break away and achieve full or near independence.

One of the finest aspects of Arab economy lay in agriculture, particularly in the skillful application of irrigation, which they mastered while living in regions where water was scarce. To this day, Spanish agriculture utilizes the irrigation systems constructed by the Arabs.

Although the culture characteristic of the Muslim world originated in Syria, it soon flourished primarily on the eastern and western fringes of this world—in Persia and Spain. During the conquests, the Syrians were enthusiastic admirers of Aristotle, whom the Nestorians esteemed above Plato, the favored philosopher of the Catholics. The Arabs first encountered Greek philosophy through the Syrians, and thus regarded Aristotle as a more significant thinker than Plato from the outset. Nevertheless, the Arab Aristotle donned Neoplatonic garb. Al-Kindi (d. circa 873), the first to write philosophy in Arabic and the only outstanding philosopher who was himself an Arab, translated fragments from the "Enneads" of Plotinus, publishing his translation under the title "Theology of Aristotle." This led to considerable confusion in the Arab understanding of Aristotle, a misunderstanding that required centuries for Arab philosophy to rectify.

Meanwhile, in Persia, Muslims came into contact with India. It was from Sanskrit texts that they first acquired knowledge of astronomy in the eighth century. Around 830, Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, a translator of Sanskrit mathematical and astronomical treatises, published a work that was later translated into Latin in the twelfth century as "Algoritmi de numero Indorum." It was from this treatise that the West first learned of what we call "Arabic" numerals, which ought to be termed "Indian" numerals. The same author also wrote a treatise on algebra, which served as a textbook in the West until the sixteenth century.

Persian civilization retained both intellectual and artistic allure until the Mongol invasion of the thirteenth century, from which it never fully recovered. Omar Khayyam, the only figure known to me who combined the roles of poet and mathematician, reformed the calendar in 1079. Strangely enough, his closest friend was the founder of the Assassins sect—the legendary "Old Man of the Mountain." Persians were great poets; those who read Ferdowsi (circa 941), the author of the "Shahnameh," claim that he stands on par with Homer. They were also remarkable mystics, unlike other Muslims. The Sufi sect, which still exists today, allowed itself considerable freedom in mystically and allegorically interpreting orthodox dogma; this interpretation bore a more or less Neoplatonic character.

The Nestorians, through whom Greek influence first penetrated the Muslim world, did not adhere strictly to purely Greek views. Their school, which existed in Edessa, was closed by Emperor Zeno in 481; thereafter, the scholars of this school emigrated to Persia, where they continued their work but could not evade Persian influence. The Nestorians esteemed Aristotle primarily as a logician, and initially, Arab philosophers placed significant emphasis on Aristotle's logic. However, they later began to study his "Metaphysics" and "On the Soul" as well. A common feature distinguishing Arab philosophers is their encyclopedic nature: they are interested in alchemy, astrology, astronomy, and zoology, as well as what we would now term philosophy. The common people, infused with fanaticism and zealotry, viewed philosophers with suspicion; the safety of philosophers (when their lives were secure) was owed to the patronage of relatively free-thinking rulers.

Particular attention should be given to two Muslim philosophers—one from Persia, the other from Spain: Avicenna and Averroes. The former enjoys the greatest fame among Muslims, while the latter is more renowned among Christians.

The life of Avicenna (Ibn Sina; 980—1037) unfolded in places typically thought to exist only in poetry. He was born in the province of Bukhara; when he turned 24, he moved to Khwarezm—"solitary Khwarezm in the desert"; later to Khorasan—"to the secluded shores of Khwarezm." For a time, Avicenna taught medicine and philosophy in Isfahan; he then settled in Tehran. In the field of medicine, Avicenna was even more famous than in philosophy, although he added little to Galen's work. From the twelfth to the seventeenth century, Avicenna's medical treatise served as a guiding text for physicians in Europe. Avicenna was not without faults: frankly speaking, he had a passion for wine and women. In the eyes of the devout, Avicenna was a dubious character, yet his medical skill earned him the friendship of rulers. At times, Avicenna found himself in trouble due to his hostility toward Turkish mercenaries; he had to go into hiding and occasionally ended up in prison. Avicenna authored an encyclopedia, which remained largely unknown in the East due to the hostile attitude of theologians, but had a significant impact in the West thanks to its translations into Latin. His psychological doctrine is characterized by an empirical tendency.

Avicenna's philosophy is closer to Aristotle and contains fewer elements of Neoplatonism than the philosophy of his Muslim predecessors. Like the later Christian scholastics, Avicenna was preoccupied with the problem of universals. Plato claimed that they existed before things. Aristotle presents two views on this matter: one when he reflects on it himself, another when he engages in polemics with Plato. This makes Aristotle an ideal source for commentators.

Avicenna formulated a principle later echoed by Averroes and Albert the Great: "Thinking derives the universal from particular things." On this basis, one might conclude that Avicenna did not believe in the existence of universals outside of thought. However, such a view would be an unacceptable simplification. Avicenna asserts that genera, or universals, exist simultaneously before things, in things, and after things. He explains this as follows: Universals exist before things in the Divine intellect. (For example, God decides to create cats. For this, He must have the idea of "cat," which thus precedes the particular cats.) Genera exist in things, in natural objects. (Once cats are created, each one contains the essence of "catness.") Genera exist after things in our thought. (By observing many cats, we notice they resemble one another and arrive at the general idea of "cat.") This perspective is clearly intended to reconcile various theories.

Averroes (Ibn Rushd; 1126—1198) lived at the opposite end of the Muslim world from Avicenna. He was born in Córdoba, where both his father and grandfather were qadis, and he himself served as a qadi—first in Seville and then in Córdoba. Averroes initially studied theology and jurisprudence, later branching into medicine, mathematics, and philosophy. He was recommended to the "Caliph" Abu Yaqub Yusuf as a man capable of analyzing Aristotle's works. (Averroes apparently did not know Greek.) This ruler took him under his patronage. In 1184, he appointed Averroes as his physician; but unfortunately, just two years later, the patient passed away. His successor, Yaqub al-Mansur, like his father, was a patron of Averroes for eleven years; however, frightened by the hostile attitude of the devout towards the philosopher, he removed him from the position of court physician and exiled him first to a small town near Córdoba and then to Morocco. Averroes was accused of preaching the philosophy of the ancients to the detriment of true faith. Al-Mansur issued a decree proclaiming that God had decreed that those who believed that truth could be grasped by reason alone would burn in hellfire. All discovered books that spoke of logic and metaphysics were subject to incineration.

Soon after this, the Christian conquests led to a significant reduction of Moorish territories in Spain. Muslim philosophy in Spain concluded with Averroës; in the broader Muslim world, intolerant orthodoxy similarly brought an end to speculation.

Iberweg makes attempts that appear rather comical to defend Averroës against accusations of unorthodoxy—a matter that perhaps should have been resolved by the Muslims themselves. He points out that, according to the views of the mystics, every text of the Quran is enveloped in seven, or seventy, or seven hundred layers of interpretation, with the literal meaning intended solely for the ignorant common folk. From this, it would seem to follow that the philosopher’s teachings are unlikely to contradict the Quran, for among the seven hundred interpretations, there is bound to be at least one that aligns with what the philosopher wishes to convey. However, in the Muslim world, the ignorant masses appeared hostile to any knowledge that transgressed the boundaries established by the wisdom of the sacred text; such knowledge was deemed dangerous, even if no specific heresy could be detected within it. The mystical view, suggesting that the common people must understand the Quran literally while it was optional for the wise, was unlikely to gain widespread acceptance among the populace.

Averroës aimed to provide a more accurate interpretation of Aristotle's teachings than had been offered by preceding Arab philosophers, who were overly influenced by Neoplatonism. He harbored a reverence for Aristotle akin to that of a follower for a religious founder, even more profound than that of Avicenna. Averroës asserts that the existence of God can be proven through reason independent of revelation—a view also held by Thomas Aquinas. Regarding immortality, it appears that Averroës aligned himself with Aristotle’s perspective, believing that the soul is not immortal while the intellect (nous) is. However, this does not entail personal immortality, as the intellect, manifesting in various individuals, is one. Naturally, this view met with fierce opposition from Christian philosophers.

Averroës, like most later Muslim philosophers, though a believer, did not adhere strictly to orthodox views. Among Arab thinkers existed a sect of purely orthodox theologians who regarded any philosophy as detrimental to faith. One of these theologians, named Al-Ghazali, wrote a book entitled "The Incoherence of the Philosophers," asserting that since all necessary truth is contained within the Quran, there is no need for speculation independent of revelation. In response to these claims, Averroës authored a work he titled "The Incoherence of the Incoherence." In his polemic against the philosophers, Al-Ghazali placed special emphasis on three religious dogmas: the creation of the world in time from nothing, the reality of divine attributes, and the resurrection of the body. Averroës views religion as belief that contains philosophical truth in an allegorical form. This particularly pertains to creation, which Averroës interprets in accordance with his philosophical views, in an Aristotelian manner.

Averroës played a more significant role in the history of Christian philosophy than in that of Muslim philosophy. In the latter, he signified a dead end; in the former, a starting point for development. Averroës was translated into Latin by Michael Scot in the early thirteenth century; considering that Averroës's writings date to the latter half of the preceding century, this is truly remarkable. Averroës exerted considerable influence in Europe, not only on the scholastics but also on a significant number of amateur freethinkers who denied immortality; these latter were even referred to as Averroists. Among professional philosophers, Averroës's followers were primarily found among the Franciscans and at the University of Paris. However, this is a topic we will address in a subsequent chapter.

Arab philosophy, as an original system of thought, does not hold significant importance. Thinkers such as Avicenna and Averroës were predominantly commentators. Overall, the views of philosophers, who were more concerned with science, were borrowed from Aristotle and the Neoplatonists in logic and metaphysics, from Galen in medicine, and from Greek and Indian sources in mathematics and astronomy; among the mystics, religious philosophy also bore traces of ancient Persian beliefs. Authors writing in Arabic displayed a degree of originality in mathematics and chemistry, the latter being a byproduct of alchemical studies. During its great days, Muslim civilization achieved remarkable results in the arts and many technical fields, but it demonstrated a complete inability to construct independent speculative frameworks on theoretical issues. Its significance, which cannot be underestimated, lies in its role as a transmitter. Centuries of darkness separate ancient and modern European civilizations. Muslims and Byzantines, lacking the intellectual vigor necessary for innovation, preserved the apparatus of civilization: education, books, and scholarly leisure. They stimulated the West as it emerged from barbarism: Muslims predominantly in the thirteenth century, Byzantines largely in the fourteenth century. In each case, the stimulus resulted in new thought, more fruitful than any intellectual achievements of the transmitters themselves: in one case, scholasticism; in the other, the Renaissance (which, however, owed its origins to other causes as well).

A fruitful connecting link between the Spanish Moors and Christians was formed by the Jews. Many Jews lived in Spain, remaining in the country even after it was reconquered by Christians. As Jews were fluent in Arabic and had necessarily acquired knowledge of the Christian language, they could serve as translators. Another channel of mediation was created by the Muslim persecutions of Aristotelians in the thirteenth century, which forced Moorish philosophers to seek refuge among the Jews, particularly in Provence.

The Spanish Jews produced one outstanding philosopher—Maimonides. He was born in Córdoba in 1135 but moved to Cairo at the age of thirty, where he spent the rest of his life. Maimonides wrote in Arabic, but his works were quickly translated into ancient Hebrew. Several decades after his death, they were translated into Latin, presumably at the behest of Emperor Frederick II. Maimonides authored a book entitled "Guide for the Perplexed," directed at those philosophers who had lost their faith. The goal of the book is to reconcile Aristotle with Jewish theology. Aristotle is acknowledged as the authority in the sublunary realm, while revelation holds sway in the celestial. However, philosophy and revelation coincide in the knowledge of God. The quest for truth is a religious duty. Astrology is rejected. The Pentateuch cannot be understood solely in a literal sense; when the literal meaning contradicts reason, we must seek an allegorical interpretation. In opposition to Aristotle, Maimonides asserts that God created not only form but also matter from nothing. He provides a brief summary of the "Timaeus" (known to him in Arabic translation), to which he in some respects gives preference over Aristotle's works. The essence of God is unknowable, for it transcends all positive perfections. The Jews regarded Maimonides as a heretic and even went so far as to incite the Christian ecclesiastical authorities against him. Some believe that Maimonides influenced Spinoza, but this assertion is highly dubious.