A Shift to Social-Ethical Issues in the Classical Period: Socrates and His Followers (Socratics)

This lecture concludes our discussion of the early stages of ancient Greek philosophy. The initial phase of this period corresponds to the Archaic period in Greek history, during the late 8th to 6th centuries BCE, when philosophy first emerged. In this lecture, we will focus on the second phase of this period, corresponding to the subsequent historical era known as the Classical period (5th-4th centuries BCE), particularly in a historical and cultural sense. Consequently, the philosophical doctrines of this time are referred to as Classical Greek Philosophy.

What was this period like from the perspective of the history of philosophy? After the Greek-Persian wars, which ended with the Greek victory and the peace treaty in 449 BCE, the leading role in economic and socio-political development shifted from the Anatolian (Ionian) city-states to the cities of mainland Greece, primarily Athens. Thus, a key outcome of the Greek-Persian wars was the rise and political dominance of Athens during the so-called "Glorious Fifty Years" (Pentekontaetia) (480-430 BCE). Athens' leading role was manifested in their leadership of the Delian League, a maritime (military) alliance consisting of around 200 city-states.

During these decades, Athens transformed into a democratic city-state, becoming a state of "popular democracy" and popular sovereignty. Its institutions included the Assembly of all citizens aged 20 and over, the Council of Five Hundred, composed of citizens starting from 30 years of age, and the jury courts, also selected from the citizens. Participation in these governmental and judicial bodies was compensated. Democratic Athens, in turn, promoted the spread and consolidation of democracy throughout Greece, and, historically, the introduction of democratic ideas into the political culture of Europe.

The period of Pentekontaetia also witnessed significant cultural progress in Athens, notably facilitated by one of the most famous statesmen, Pericles, the de facto leader of the state, who was continually elected as a general from the 60s of the 5th century BCE. He contributed to the increase in literacy, education, and culture among citizens; introduced payment for attending the theater, which was an important source of information, including on philosophical issues, as illustrated by Aristophanes' "Clouds."

Pericles’ efforts in this direction met the needs of the democratic city-state, as citizen participation in governance, legislation, and judicial proceedings required certain preparation. The comedies of Aristophanes reflect this perspective, particularly in the agon between Right and Wrong. Wrong claims that "in essence, there is no such thing as Truth." Right responds that truth lies "with the immortal gods." This provokes Wrong’s retort: "If truth is not a trivial matter, why then is Zeus not punished? After all, he chained his own father."

To prevent "crooked arguments" from "overwhelming the straight ones," in addition to traditional pursuits like gymnastics and music, attention was also given to the study of rhetoric and philosophy. Success in court depended on the strength of the advocate's persuasion. This situation is humorously depicted in the "Clouds," where the protagonist Strepsiades wishes to win a lawsuit against his creditors and seeks eloquence from the Clouds: "I want to surpass everyone in Greece in conversation." The leader of the Clouds responds: "We are willing to grant your wish. From now on, you will be able to lead the people’s assemblies and win arguments with your speeches."

Philosophy responded to these societal needs by increasing attention to rhetoric, ethical problems, and questions of state and law. During this time, the Sophists and Socrates and his followers (the Socratics) focused significantly on these areas of knowledge. Their work in spreading knowledge led to the emergence of fields such as anthropology, ethics, and politics.

As these areas of social-ethical knowledge were developed and disseminated among the citizens of the city-state, philosophy began to play a more prominent role in society, acquiring practical significance and impacting daily life. Philosophers became mentors to citizens, especially the youth. An example of this is the activities of the Sophists and Socratic dialogues, where listeners eventually founded their own philosophical schools. It is known that Pericles himself was a friend of the philosopher Anaxagoras, as mentioned by Plato, who wrote that Pericles, having associated with Anaxagoras, gained profound knowledge and insight into the nature of mind and thought, frequently discussed by Anaxagoras. The knowledge gained from Anaxagoras also proved useful to Pericles in practical (military) situations, as Cicero reports in his treatise "On the Republic," where Pericles reassured an army frightened by a solar eclipse by explaining its natural causes.

However, the scientific-rational nature of philosophical teachings led to clashes with the dominant religious worldview in the city-state, as they contributed to religious skepticism and materialistic worldviews, such as those found in the natural philosophy of Democritus. Aristophanes’ "Clouds" depicts the irreverence of philosophers:

"Will you not honor other gods besides those we ourselves venerate? The vast expanse of Air. The Clouds and Language — that’s the sacred triad!"

"Zeus Olympian? Oh, foolishness! Such a big fellow and still believes in a god!"

Not only overt irreverence but even minor deviations from traditional religious beliefs were subjected to condemnation and persecution, as evidenced by the fates of some philosophers.

Addressing human and socio-political issues was somewhat characteristic of early Greek philosophers, but their primary focus was naturally philosophical, as perceived by the ancients themselves. Due to the lack of philosophical writings, we cannot present a significantly different understanding.

This is not the case with philosophers of the classical period. Even the natural philosophers of this time left substantial material indicating their interest in social and political issues. Among the fragments of Democritus, we find numerous statements on these matters, and even a form of democratic theory resembling what Pericles described about the political structure of Athens, as reported by the historian Thucydides.

However, the Sophists and Socrates, who concentrated on moral and social issues, prepared young people for active civic life. Socrates, the first philosopher from Athens (469-399 BCE), focused on social-ethical problems and was much more consistent in this regard than the Sophists. He critically assessed the norms of city-state life and offered his own views on religious matters. However, he also differed significantly from the Sophists in methods of teaching and discussing philosophical issues.

Socrates taught philosophy and ethics orally and therefore did not write anything down. His method and content of teaching are known through the works of his students, particularly the significant ancient authors — historian Xenophon and philosopher Plato. In Plato’s dialogue "Phaedrus," Socrates vividly illustrates the shortcomings of written expression: "In this, Phaedrus, writing has a bad feature, truly akin to painting: its creations stand there as if they were alive, but if you question them, they remain majestically and proudly silent. The same is true for written works: you think they speak as if they were rational beings, but if anyone asks about something they say, wishing to understand it, they always give the same answer."

Thus, Socrates proposed his method for guiding citizens towards philosophical truths. While the Sophists wrote their speeches and works and then addressed audiences, Socrates engaged in free conversations with individuals. This method, known as Socratic dialectic — a conversation on philosophical topics — differed from the Sophists' approach, as they presented their positions as unquestionable truths, imposing them on their students. Socrates, on the other hand, sought truth through collaborative inquiry, which provided individuals not only with knowledge but also with conviction in the truth of their own discoveries (with Socrates' assistance). Socrates referred to his method as "midwifery" (maieutics), likening it to assisting in the birth of true knowledge, drawing an analogy with his mother, who was a midwife. While his mother helped bring bodies into the world, Socrates helped souls. By analogy, Socrates can also be called a "sculptor of souls," as his father Sophroniscus was a sculptor.

How did Socrates conduct his conversations, and what did his maieutics involve? The initial stage of conversation was irony (pretending not to know). Socrates pretended to be ignorant (his famous expression: "I know that I know nothing") and sought knowledge from others through questioning. The second stage was the actual dialogue (dialectic), which involved Socrates asking questions and the interlocutor giving brief answers, turning the dialogue into a "cross-examination." Socrates likely adjusted his approach based on his interlocutor’s character. In the "Clouds," Socrates starts a conversation with Strepsiades: "Let us begin! Describe yourself to me so that, by understanding your nature, I may approach you more effectively with my subtleties."

It is commonly said that the "Clouds" is a caricature of Socrates. However, every caricature relies on certain traits of the original subject.

The logical conclusion of the conversation is to lead the interlocutor to the correct opinion by causing contradictions within their own statements, making them reflect on the correctness of their previous beliefs, cleanse their soul of false opinions, and reach the truth. For example, in the "Clouds," we find:

"When you get lost in reasoning, abandon it, then return to it, and carefully weigh it!"

"Devising refutations and disproving the evidence" (743).

Another example is Socrates’ conversation with Euthydemus about piety (IV, 6). After several theses are presented: piety is a good thing; a pious person is one who honors the gods; they honor the gods based on laws. Socrates provokes the interlocutor to draw certain conclusions from their own premises: piety is a good thing; piety is not always good. Socrates’ approach in this dialogue involves forming paradoxes and exploring contradictions.

A prime example of Socratic dialectic is the dialogue with Meno in which Socrates demonstrates how true knowledge is derived from philosophical inquiry. Socrates employs a mathematical problem, asking an illiterate servant about geometry. Through questioning, he guides the servant to discover the truth on his own.

In general, Socrates’ goal was to teach individuals to find truth through dialectical methods and self-reflection, rather than simply presenting them with knowledge. This approach contrasts sharply with the methods of the Sophists, who sought to manipulate the audience through rhetorical techniques.

The introduction of this "new deity" provoked attacks from its detractors and became the subject of ridicule in Aristophanes' comedy, Clouds. Aristophanes accuses Socrates of denying the old gods and corrupting the youth. In the play, Socrates says:

"Understand this: the only true deities are the Clouds; everything else is absurd nonsense! Zeus does not exist!"

One of the characters in the comedy describes Socrates as "Socrates, the godless Melian," an attempt by Aristophanes to emphasize Socrates' perceived fall from religious norms and to increase animosity towards him by likening him to the atheist Diagoras of Melos, who was notorious for mocking the Eleusinian Mysteries and even carving up a wooden statue of Heracles to cook lentils, saying, "Onward, Heracles! The thirteenth labor will be completed for us, and the lentils will be cooked." For this, the Athenians condemned Diagoras and offered a reward for his capture.

In the agon between Right and Wrong in the play, there is also a second accusation against Socrates: that he is a " corrupter of youth, a plague upon the city." This accusation is illustrated in the play by showing that Pheidippides, the son of Strepsiades, starts beating his father after studying under Socrates. Socrates was tried and sentenced to death in 399 BCE for these accusations. Aristophanes anticipated such an outcome, as the comedy was staged in 423 BCE. At the end of the play, Strepsiades burns Socrates' "thinking-shop" (house) with the words:

"Why have they outrageously risen against the gods? <...> And most importantly — they have dishonored the gods!"

Socrates' teachings are significant in that he was essentially the first to reflect deeply on moral categories, laying the foundations for ethics as a philosophical discipline. Even if we refer only to Xenophon, we see the extensive range of ethical concepts Socrates addressed: temperance as a precious good for every person and citizen; moderation and endurance; diligence; courage; wisdom and morality, with no distinction between them; justice; envy; leisure; piety; and what is beautiful and useful.

Focusing on moral issues, Socrates moved completely away from natural philosophy. He viewed the study of nature as an intrusion into the domain of the gods, who had arranged the world as it is. As Cicero writes, "Socrates was inclined to consider only matters concerning human life and conduct" (On the Republic, I, 16). Another vivid description of Socrates' turn to practical philosophy is given by Cicero: "Socrates was the first to bring philosophy down from the heavens and establish it in cities, and even in the homes of individuals, compelling people to examine morals and the nature of good and evil" (Tusculan Disputations, V, 10).

Socrates believed that philosophy should prepare individuals for civic life—governing the polis and their own households. The people must be freed from ignorance and frivolity, the noble from ambition and love of power. Only educated and moral individuals can effectively govern the state. Thus, Socrates understood the purpose of philosophy.

Socratic Schools: Several of Socrates' followers went on to establish their own philosophical schools, known as the Socratic schools. From Eucleides of Megara (who studied under Socrates around 432 BCE and died around 380 or 365 BCE) came the Megarian school (Megarians); from Antisthenes of Athens (who began studying with the Sophists in 427 BCE and later with Socrates, dying in 376 BCE) came the Cynic school (Cynics); from Aristippus of Cyrene (who came to Athens to study under Socrates in 461 BCE) came the Cyrenaic school (Cyrenaics); from Phaedo of Elis (who studied with Socrates around 400 BCE and died around 350 BCE) came the Elian school; and finally, from Menedemus of Eretria (who studied in Megara between 317-307 BCE) came the Eretrian school.

The philosophical issues in Socratic teachings within these schools primarily focus on ethics and, secondly, on dialectics and related language problems. Very little material from these Socratic philosophers has survived, making a comprehensive account quite difficult.

Megarians: Eucleides of Megara, in addressing the concept of the good, claimed that the good is a singular, self-similar, and identical entity. His followers included Eubulides of Miletus, who succeeded Eucleides around 365 BCE; Stilpo (~380-300 BCE); and Diodorus Cronus (died in 308 BCE). They became renowned for their studies in logic and language, posing numerous problems in these areas of knowledge. Their paradoxical arguments were termed sophisms. Cicero notes that Stilpo, Diodorus, and Alexinus "produced some complex and clever sophisms... deceptive arguments." These paradoxes made one reflect on how people think, reason, and argue, and how they express their thoughts. Some notable paradoxes include:

• The Liar Paradox: Eubulides' paradox, which questions whether it is possible to both truthfully and falsely swear to a statement simultaneously. Cicero presents this paradox as follows: "Is this statement true or false: 'If you say that you are lying, and you say that this is true, then are you lying or telling the truth?'" The paradox lies in the inability to definitively categorize the statement as either true or false, challenging the principles of logic and the meaning of a "statement."
• The Heap Paradox: Also known as the Sorites paradox, this problem questions when a collection of grains becomes a heap as grains are added one by one. Cicero describes it as follows: "They use the most deceptive form of reasoning, where something is added or removed gradually... They call it the sorites because a heap (acervum) is formed by adding one grain at a time." The philosophical issue here is the difficulty in finding a criterion for when gradual quantitative changes transform into qualitative differences.
• The Man Under the Cloak: Another of Eubulides' sophisms, questioning whether one can recognize someone who is approaching if they are covered. Aristotle explains that the same object can be known and unknown, but not in the same respect. This sophism was used to question sensory knowledge.

Stilpo is known for highlighting at least two logical and linguistic issues. Firstly, he pointed out that words denote general classes of objects, while in reality, we deal with individual things. Therefore, words communicate nothing about actual objects. Diogenes Laertius quotes Stilpo: "He rejected general concepts (ta eide). According to him, when someone says 'man,' they are saying 'nobody,' for it is neither this man nor that man (since one is no more preferred than the other), and therefore, no man at all." Stilpo also insisted on the necessity of identity between subject and predicate in statements, considering only tautologies as true.

Diodorus Cronus is famous for his paradoxical understanding of possibility, asserting that "Nothing is possible that is not true and will not be." This means that everything that has the potential to occur has already become reality, and what remains will never come to be, thus equating possibility with reality and necessity. Cicero contrasts this view with that of Chrysippus, who argues that some things may be possible even if they do not occur, such as a gem breaking, even if it never actually happens. The difference lies in that Diodorus addresses real possibility, while Chrysippus deals with formal possibility. Cicero humorously notes the absurdity of Diodorus' view in practical terms, stating that if you intend to arrive, you must necessarily arrive; if you do not intend to arrive, it is impossible for you to arrive.