Master Mozi and His School (Mozi)

Mozi (Mo as the family name, Zi as the personal name) lived during the latter half of the 5th century BCE (approximately 479-400 BCE) and hailed from the state of Lu (Liu), the same region as Confucius. The doctrines of Mozi are detailed in the text "Mozi," which evolved from the 5th to 3rd centuries BCE, reflecting not only the ideas of the school’s founder but also those of his followers. According to traditional Chinese historiography, the social base of the Mohist school was considered to be the temple guards or similar service-minded individuals (shi), as is commonly written today.

The teachings of Mozi and the early Mohists primarily represent an ethical-political doctrine, while the later Mohists shift towards epistemological concerns. Mozi’s political and ethical perspectives stem from dissatisfaction with the current societal conditions and criticism of the shortcomings in state governance, as well as dissatisfaction with the solutions proposed by Confucians for improving life in the Middle Kingdom. As a result, Mohist doctrine takes on an anti-Confucian character, and some historians of philosophy (such as Feng Youlan) refer to its founder as "the first opponent of Confucius."

To begin, we must address the roots of Mozi’s philosophy — his condemnation of existing social orders. According to Mozi, rulers (the "wens" and "guns") sought to enforce obedience and power through the threat of death. They appointed their relatives or those of pleasing appearance to positions of authority, rather than individuals with knowledge and wisdom capable of managing state affairs. Naturally, this led to adverse consequences: "disrespect for wisdom, appointments of the unqualified, and resulting chaos in the country." People ceased to revere their parents, maintain friendships, respect elders, or care for the young and weak; thieves controlled the treasury; traitors were tasked with guarding the city; wealth was distributed unevenly; and rulers lacked proper counsel.

Regarding Confucian teachings, Mozi deemed them inadequate for rectifying state affairs: "Their extensive teachings cannot serve as rules for the world. They contemplate much but cannot help the common people." Essentially, he critiques the external impressiveness of Confucian teachings, achieved through music, dance, and complex ceremonies, which in practice are disconnected from real life: "In a lifetime, it is impossible to grasp their teachings, in a year, one cannot perform their ceremonies, and even a rich person cannot [afford to] enjoy their music."

In particular, the text includes chapters condemning the Confucian veneration of antiquity and fate. "Virtue is not in ancient clothing or imitating ancient speech," asserted Mozi, advocating for creating new goodness: "If there was something good in ancient times, it should be emulated. Goodness should be created now. I want goodness to increase." Similarly, Mozi spoke of fate: "To revere fate is meaningless. If one neglects fate, misfortune will not occur." Furthermore, reliance on fate is harmful as it devalues human effort: "To require people to learn and assert that there is fate is like ordering someone to set their hair and then immediately knocking off their hat." He also expressed that happiness cannot be begged for, nor can misfortune be avoided if one has acted poorly and not worked diligently.

Examining Mozi’s views on social life and governance begins with the history of establishing authority, order, and morality in antiquity as outlined in his treatise. This history bears a resemblance to ancient and subsequent European historical-sociological theories.

In ancient times, when humans first appeared, each had their own understanding of justice, and there was discord among people: "In the Middle Kingdom, there was disorder, like among wild beasts." This chaos was resolved by electing a ruler: "Realizing that the cause of chaos was the lack of governance and seniority, people chose the most virtuous and wise person in the Middle Kingdom and made him the Son of Heaven." In a part of the text attributed to the later Mohists, there is a definition of a ruler: "A ruler is one who establishes general agreement in the actions of officials and commoners; this title results from the agreement of the people."

The Son of Heaven creates a unified model of justice, and people emulate him, resulting in order in the Middle Kingdom. The understanding of justice here is reminiscent of Plato’s ideas. Social justice entails individuals engaging in tasks suited to their abilities. This is illustrated by the analogy in the text: the execution of justice is like building a wall, where those skilled in laying bricks do so, and so forth. Understood this way, justice is, according to Mozi, the foundation of social activity: "By following justice, all tasks will be accomplished."

Thus, the primordial chaos is rectified by people themselves without divine intervention: they create authority that establishes universal justice through the distribution of duties according to individual abilities, achieving a socio-political structure. However, there remains a shortfall in interpersonal relationships, particularly in the ethical realm. People lack love for one another and mutual affection due to egoism. "A son loves himself but not his father, thereby harming his father for his own benefit," says the text.

In contrast, Mozi proposes one of his most renowned principles — "universal love": "Evil people harbor partial love, not universal love. Therefore, partial love should be rejected. Partial love and self-interest should be replaced by universal love and mutual benefit." According to Mohist doctrine, "A person who treats everyone with love is called one who practices [universal] love for people." It is noteworthy that Mozi’s concept of love is tied to the pragmatic notion of benefit, which aligns with the generally practical orientation of ancient Chinese philosophy.

This focus on humanizing relationships and improving the condition of the people is reflected in Mozi’s principles "against music" and "against aggression." He condemns the musical entertainments of kings and rulers, who indulge in luxury while the common people lack food and clothing. In his view, they do not align their actions with the benefit of the Middle Kingdom but seek personal gratification. Essentially, this is a critique of the opulence of the nobility.

The principle "against aggression" extends the political aspect of the doctrine of mutual love. Rulers love their own realms and dislike foreign ones, thus seeking to strike other states. Mozi believes it is futile to resolve political disputes through war, which brings many calamities he vividly describes.

This discussion underscores that the principle of universal love is crucial in Mozi’s socio-political system. It occupies significant space in both the first and second parts of the text, where numerous aporias and paradoxes related to it are explored, such as how one can love all people without knowing their number; how to handle love for thieves and bandits, etc. Mozi himself attempts to justify this principle and persuade people to adhere to it by invoking the highest power in ancient Chinese thought — Heaven. Firstly, "Heaven practices universal love and brings benefit to all," nurturing and sustaining all beings. Accordingly, Heaven desires that people mutually love each other and bring benefits to one another. "To follow the will of Heaven means to follow universal love and mutual benefit among people," states the treatise. Secondly, Mozi believed that "in dealing with affairs in the Middle Kingdom, one cannot do without emulating the model." In socio-political relations and state governance, this model is recognized as Heaven, which loves the people and benefits all: "There is nothing more fitting than to take Heaven as a model. The actions of Heaven are extensive and selfless. It is generous and [does not boast of] its virtues." Following such recommendations should, according to Mozi, ultimately lead to the prosperity of the Middle Kingdom: "In justice and governance, there will be order, the entire populace will live in harmony, and the country will be abundant in goods for consumption."

The following two principles — "approaching the service of loyal individuals" and "revering wisdom" — are closely related and constitute Mozi’s advice on state management. In his statements on this matter, faithful servants and wise individuals are generally mentioned together or combined in one person, for example: "If managing a kingdom, not caring about the service of loyal individuals will result in the loss of the country. To meet a wise person and not promptly [seek their advice] is to be careless about governance"; "If all the wealth of the country were gathered, it would not compare to the value of wise and loyal servants."

Unlike "approaching the service of loyal individuals," "revering wisdom" is not solely Mozi’s requirement — it is a general tenet of Chinese philosophy, as noted in the text: "Revering wisdom as the foundation of governance is it the conviction of only the teacher Mozi?" — with subsequent reference to its origins in ancient times. However, the text presents his explanation with notable practical detail. "Revering wisdom" entails appointing capable individuals to positions, rather than relatives, nobles, wealthy, or attractive individuals; granting the wise high positions and substantial salaries; placing subordinates under their command; and removing the incapable. This is summarized as the principle: "Those who desire to practice universal love and benefit should engage in revering wisdom and approaching the service of loyal individuals."

Mozi’s specific views and recommendations regarding the appointment of officials, taxation, and so forth, can be categorized as practical, as they focus on implementing universal love in the daily governance of the state. The analysis of Mozi’s teachings reveals their notable practical orientation and impact on early Chinese thought and practice.