Ancient Philosophy

Periodization of Ancient Philosophy

1. Mythology as a form of worldview
   Mythology, as a particular form of worldview, always possesses something philosophical, which is why it is often referred to as pre-philosophy.
2. The Classical Period, where the sensory-material cosmos is viewed as an object
   a) Early Classical Period — The sensory-material cosmos was understood intuitively, appearing as a system of physical elements, leading to the concept of physis (pre-Socratic philosophy, or the pre-Socratics).
   b) Middle Classical Period — The sensory-material cosmos was interpreted discursively through the search for supra-elemental commonalities (Sophists and Socrates).
   c) Mature (High) Classical Period — The sensory-material cosmos was interpreted dialectically, in the form of a system of categories (Plato).
   d) Late Classical Period — The sensory-material cosmos was no longer understood dialectically and categorically as with Plato, but energetically, in the form of a doctrine about reason as the prime mover and first cause (Aristotle).
3. Hellenistic Philosophy
   In this period, the early and middle stages of Hellenism were united by the idea that the sensory-material cosmos, in contrast to the classical period, was now regarded as a subject, while the late stage of Hellenism treated it as myth:
   a) Early Hellenism (Stoicism, Epicureanism, Skepticism) — Proclaimed the object as something consciously perceived and the subject as that which perceives itself.
   b) Late Hellenism, including all of Roman philosophy — Neoplatonism, as the final peak of ancient philosophy, viewed the transformation of subject and object into a living, ensouled entity, which was simultaneously both subject and object. This implies viewing the cosmos as a living, animated being.
4. The Fall and Demise of Ancient Philosophy
   Ancient philosophy began with myth and ended with myth. Once the myth was exhausted, ancient philosophy itself was also depleted.
   Ancient consciousness had already begun transitioning from myth to logos, from the unified and whole sensory-material cosmos to its construction based on reason.
   However, it is impossible to determine exactly when and where the philosophical spirit first arose among the Greeks. It is in Ancient Greece that we first encounter a free and objective relationship between:

✵ consciousness and being,

✵ spirit and nature.
Greek philosophy traces its origins to the "Seven Sages," who played a key role in laying the groundwork for ancient philosophy. The term "Seven Sages" is often placed in quotes because there were actually more than seven, with various lists of sages existing, though each consistently included the number seven, reflecting the early philosophical consciousness's fascination with the magic of numbers. Plato's list is the most well-known, though across all lists, four names—Solon, Thales, Bias, and Pittacus—are consistently included. The wisdom of these figures did not belong to science or mythology. The time of the "Seven Sages" marks the end of the 7th and the beginning of the 6th century BCE, a period when Greece entered the Iron Age. With the separation of craftsmanship from agriculture, the ancient polis—the city-state—flourished, where surrounding rural areas were economically and politically subordinated to the city. Thus, the city completely and irreversibly triumphed over the countryside, giving rise to trade, monetary relations, and the minting of coins.

The Greek sages were eminent thinkers, scholars, poets, and legislators of their time, held in special esteem and universally beloved by the Greeks. Their wisdom manifested itself in reflections on everyday consciousness through aphorisms (gnomai) that took the form of general moral instructions. These aphorisms were immensely popular, with sayings like "Nothing in excess" and "Know thyself" even engraved above the entrance to the Temple of Apollo at Delphi.
Some gnomai were direct instructions: "Nothing in excess," "Think first, speak afterward" (Chilon), and "Listen more and speak only when appropriate" (Bias). Others took the form of questions and answers: "What is the hardest thing? — To know yourself." "What is the quickest? — The mind, for it can travel anywhere." "What is the easiest? — To give advice to others." "What is the strongest? — Necessity, for nothing can overcome it" (Thales).
Solon, one of the most famous Greek sages, warned the rich living in luxury: "As long as a person is alive, they cannot be called happy, for no one knows what will happen to them tomorrow." The sayings of the "Seven Sages" contributed to the harmonization of human relationships. Yet, unlike ancient Chinese and Indian philosophies, Greek philosophy arose not primarily as an ethical system but as natural philosophy. In both nature and the Greek gods, the Greeks saw not rulers or enemies of their existence, but beings akin to themselves, though superior. From the very beginning of Greek philosophy, nature was a pure object of thought.