Philosophy of Society

Social Philosophy (Theory of Society)

Sociology of Spencer

An influential figure in the development of the science of society was the English thinker Herbert Spencer (1820-1903). Living and working in an era dominated by evolutionary theory, Spencer himself made significant contributions to its advancement and popularization, placing him alongside Charles Darwin as one of its founders. While Darwin applied evolutionary theory exclusively within the realm of biology to explain the origin of living organisms, Spencer championed the theory of universal evolution, which he believed governed everything. He distinguished three types of evolution corresponding to three domains of existence:

• Inorganic Evolution: This pertains to the formation of the non-living world— the creation of atoms and molecules, the formation of stars and planets, mountains and rivers, oceans and continents, essentially the development of the material world with its non-living components.
• Organic Evolution: This refers to the emergence of species of living organisms, ranging from the simplest single-celled forms to humans and other complex life forms.
• Superorganic Evolution: This concerns the development of society, including the formation of its institutions, the emergence of the family, the state, political systems, and so forth.

According to Spencer, society is a unique organism that continually becomes more complex. Much like an organism, society constantly generates new "cells" and "organs" that did not previously exist. Through the creation of new social parts, the distribution of functions within society becomes more refined. People perpetually establish new institutions and assign responsibilities to them, resulting in an ever-narrowing range of activities for each member of society. This increasing complexity and diversity of society lead to its heterogeneity. Concurrently, all members of society and its institutions build increasingly tighter and more organic relationships with one another. Superorganic evolution is an ongoing movement toward a complex yet integrated society. Early societies are those where individuals are compelled to join due to external circumstances (such as the necessity to combine efforts for production, defense, etc.) or by coercion from the state. These societies evolve into ones where people choose to belong because they feel a sense of affinity with others.

A crucial issue in Spencer's philosophy is the relationship between society and the state. In this regard, Spencer's views were in stark opposition to those of Comte. Whereas Comte believed that with societal development, the controlling role of the state and protectionism should increase, Spencer argued that the role of the state should diminish. In early societies, where members were not yet organically integrated, the state needed to act as a guardian of human rights. However, as society becomes more organic, the need for such a state diminishes. Everything is governed by the law of evolution, and thus evolution will resolve all societal problems if given the freedom to do so. The greatest challenge to society is humanity itself, which, by nature, is primitive. Yet, within society, individuals are civilized and become capable of communal living.