Philosophy of Society

Social Philosophy (Theory of Society)

Humanistic Sociology of Weber

At the same time that figures like Le Bon, de Gobineau, and Durkheim were active in France, and Spencer in Britain, German social philosophers also raised their voices. Max Weber (1864-1920) made the most significant contribution to the German sociological tradition. His starting point is the complete distinction between society and living organisms, implying that the method for studying society must differ from that of the natural sciences. While the natural sciences aim to describe and explain their subject matter, the task of social theory is understanding. Society consists of people, free beings whose actions can be understood but not reduced to universal laws. Even if a researcher can explain why people acted in a certain way, they cannot predict with certainty that people will act the same way under identical circumstances in the future.

Natural scientists and sociologists ask fundamentally different questions. A natural scientist inquires how something happens, whereas a sociologist asks why. The sociologist's task is to find the purpose behind people's actions. It would be odd for an astronomer to seek the purpose behind the Moon's orbit around the Earth; similarly, it is normal for a sociologist to ask why Ukrainians rose in the Revolution of Dignity. Nature and society are different, and thus their actions are also different. Weber argued that the task of social sciences is to study social action in all its aspects. He identified four types of social actions: traditional (unthinking action dictated by tradition and habit), affective (unthinking action driven by emotions and feelings), value-rational (thoughtful action motivated by conscious recognition of moral and religious values), and goal-rational (thoughtful action aimed at achieving specific goals through the expected actions of others). Sociological research focuses only on value-rational and goal-rational actions, as they are conscious. The less conscious an action is, the less accessible it becomes for sociological study.

All these actions are performed not by society, but by individual persons. This is another way in which Weber’s views differ from those of Durkheim. While Durkheim saw the individual as completely dependent on society, with sociology studying society itself, Weber asserted that society is merely the arena where an individual's potential is revealed, and sociology should study individuals within society. Humans possess reason; they seek to understand and make sense of even their unconscious actions. Likewise, people strive to create the best conditions for living. The best for humans is the rational. Thus, the entire history of humanity is a continuous effort to build rational social institutions. And humanity has succeeded in this. Rational and thus best for people are Christianity, capitalism, and bureaucracy. Weber argued that Christianity, especially Protestantism, is the best religion because it is rational and logical. Capitalism is the best form of economy as it is based on reason. Bureaucracy is the best form of administration because it is rational. By bureaucracy, Weber meant not bureaucratism—where inept officials complicate life for others—but rational planning and the rule of law, where officials are to enforce laws rather than make decisions.

The achievement of Christianity, capitalism, and bureaucracy signifies tremendous civilizational progress, yet these states, though attained, remain imperfect. There are still Christians who do not fully understand their faith and practice it merely out of tradition; there are still economic actors who make irrational decisions and cause economic crises; and there are still officials who abuse their positions. Addressing these issues is part of the ongoing progress. One essential factor without which progress would be impossible is the study of the nature of society, i.e., sociology.

By elevating Christianity, capitalism, and bureaucracy to the level of rational and thus best forms of society, Weber laid the foundation for the sociology of religion, the sociology of economics, and the sociology of power. In analyzing the issue of power, he identified three types: legal (based on reason and typical of countries with quality administrative institutions, such as the USA, England, France), traditional (characteristic of traditional societies based on customs rather than law, such as ancient tribes), and charismatic (based on the figure of a charismatic leader, such as Alexander the Great or Julius Caesar). The best type of power is legal, as it is based on reason.