Philosophy of Society

Social Philosophy (Theory of Society)

German Formal Sociology

German formal sociology represents another chapter in the evolution of sociological thought. Its key figures are two scholars: Georg Simmel and Ferdinand Tönnies, contemporaries of Durkheim and Weber. Unlike their peers, the German formal sociologists did not aim to construct grand social-philosophical doctrines but sought to explore various particular themes that, nonetheless, profoundly influenced contemporary sociological thought and remain relevant today.

One of the leading figures in German sociological thought was Georg Simmel (1858-1918). In contrast to Durkheim, who saw society as the object of sociology, and Weber, who considered sociology as the study of individuals within society, Simmel believed that the focus of sociology should be on social relationships—the ways in which people interact within society. For Simmel, social relationships are dynamic. Thus, he was less interested in society as a static and unchanging entity. The goal of social relationships is "sociation," or the inclusion of individuals within a social whole. Simmel identified three types of sociation:

• Social Processes: Interactions among members of society, such as division of labor, friendship, conflict, dominance, and submission.
• Social Types: Roles or statuses that individuals occupy within society, such as aristocrat, intellectual, worker, slave, monarch, priest, or homeless person.
• Social Models: Structures within society that define social types.

Social relations are dynamic and constantly changing. Simmel argued that social dynamics are directed towards the independence of individuals and the formation of larger communities. Historically, people lived in small communities (family, tribe, village, parish, guild). Over time, people increasingly become members of larger communities (large enterprises, student groups, political parties, metropolises). In small communities, people are less free: everyone knows everything about everyone, and the survival of individuals depends on the support of others. In large communities, people experience freedom: their lives are less subject to external interference. However, in small communities, individuals feel needed and valued, while in larger ones, they often feel neglected. The only factor that confers status and significance in large communities is money. Those who possess money become subjects of widespread discussion: they are covered in newspapers and respected. When money becomes the measure of personal social value, people may sell their time, labor, effort, and sometimes even their humanity for it. To earn money, economic development is necessary; thus, members of large communities invest efforts in the continuous accumulation of wealth. Enrichment is not inherently evil; rather, it is alienation that becomes a problem, infiltrating social relations due to the relentless pursuit of wealth and money.

Ferdinand Tönnies (1855-1936) expressed similar ideas. He began his reflections with a critique of Thomas Hobbes. While Hobbes asserted that people are egoistic and prone to hostility towards others, Tönnies argued that people are motivated to live in society not by the state but by an inner will. People have a will for social life. Tönnies distinguished two types of will:

• Natural Will: Instincts, emotions, and feelings that lead individuals to an unreflective desire to be with others simply because they find comfort and pleasure in their company.
• Rational Will: Deliberate desires to unite with others to achieve specific goals, such as organizing efficient production and accumulating wealth.

These two types of will give rise to two types of societies:

• Community (Gemeinschaft): Small associations based on natural will (family, circle of friends, village, parish).
• Society (Gesellschaft): Large associations based on rational will for achieving planned and considered goals.

According to Tönnies, the development of humanity has a clear direction: people are constantly moving from community to society. In society, they gain independence from the social relations prevailing in communities, which restrict human nature, but they simultaneously lose the sense of a familiar environment. In society, social relations are so rationalized that there is little room for love and friendship, leading individuals to feel lonely in such conditions.