Philosophy of Society

Social Philosophy (Theory of Society)

Sociological Psychologism

Sociological psychologism is a collective term that encompasses various schools of sociological thought that utilize principles of psychology. Proponents of sociological psychologism assert that since society is composed of individuals, whose behavior and motivations are studied by psychology, the behavior of human groups should also be examined through psychological methods. In other words, if there exists a psychology of the individual, then there must also be a psychology of groups (society). There are several branches of sociological psychologism, each presenting its own original explanations of the nature of society, but all share the commonality of applying psychological findings and methods to the study of social processes, seeing the causes of social change in the psyche of individuals. The peak of sociological psychologism's popularity occurred at the turn of the 19th to 20th centuries.

• Psychological Evolutionism: This branch of sociological thought was pioneered by the American Lester Frank Ward (1841-1913), inspired by Herbert Spencer's idea of universal evolution. Ward agreed with the concept of universal evolution but posited that its apex is social genesis. He argued that at a certain stage in human development, society emerged, uniting all the forces that enabled the creation of the cosmos, life, and humanity. The advent of society altered the nature of evolution: whereas evolution was previously an unconscious natural process independent of human influence, the primary force driving societal development is now conscious striving for progress. Humans aspire to progress, or self-improvement, which motivates their development. Quality social and state institutions, effective economies, legal systems, sciences, and cultures did not arise spontaneously like parts of the human body. These institutions emerged because people desired a better life and created conditions to achieve it. The forms of social life constructed by people are still far from perfection. There are various types of social friction that need to be addressed. The task of humanity moving forward is to remove these issues. Sociology and social philosophy should aid in eliminating social friction and fostering a better type of society. Humanity strives to build a highly moral, cultured, prosperous, and lawful society that will be an environment for general happiness. According to Ward, since evolution is a universal principle, it should not stop but continue, transforming society into a conscious cooperation, i.e., a free association of people aware of the need for such unity. The constant human drive for progress makes society dynamic and its reforms ongoing. Thus, society not only has its genesis (origin) but also its telos (purpose), which is its orientation towards the progress people seek and strive to achieve.
• Crowd Psychology: This direction within sociological psychologism, an important field of study, was initiated by the Frenchman Gustave Le Bon (1841-1931). His theory is based on the idea that, in the 19th century, society entered a new stage of development. The rapid industrialization led to the formation of large gatherings of people. Before the scientific and technical revolution, there was no need for people to unite in large communities; even guilds consisted of only a few dozen individuals. Factories gathered hundreds of people, most engaged in physical labor with low levels of education. Such gatherings of people gave rise to a new social reality. Individuals assembled in large groups felt their collective power and believed they possessed enough competence to make significant social decisions. Decision-making had previously been the prerogative of the aristocracy and clergy, the educated and responsible individuals. Le Bon asserted that humanity had transitioned from an era of elites to an era of crowds. The crowd is a new social reality previously unknown to humanity. Le Bon analyzed human behavior in crowds and demonstrated that individuals behave differently in crowds compared to when alone. The crowd completely alters individual behavior, making the study of crowd psychology the only way to understand these behavioral principles. A crowd has five defining characteristics: first, all members of the crowd are infected with a single idea; second, the crowd feels a collective power that is hypnotic to its members; third, the crowd does not feel responsibility even for its crimes; fourth, the crowd is always intolerant, prone to exaggerations, and susceptible to suggestions; and fifth, the crowd acts thoughtlessly and impulsively, and is ready to follow its leader uncritically. Le Bon divided crowds into two groups: homogeneous and heterogeneous. Homogeneous crowds are those that unite over a long period based on some spiritual unity, such as crowds united by stable political or ideological views. Heterogeneous crowds, on the other hand, come together briefly to achieve a specific goal, such as those forming during political revolutions. Le Bon’s critical observation was that in a crowd, individuals disconnect their reason. All members of the crowd act as if they were alone and possessed the lowest levels of education and intellectual development. The crowd primitively dehumanizes and depersonalizes people. Le Bon viewed the rise of the crowd era as the end of high human culture and a descent to the lowest level of barbarism. He was particularly alarmed by the fact that crowds are not confined to local societies but seek to encompass all humanity. Socialism, as a globalizing and dominating force, was considered by Le Bon to be such a wild crowd, leading to anarchy, terror, impoverishment, anti-religious struggle, devaluation of universal values, and the destruction of moral and legal norms. Despite his ideas being presented as early as 1908 in his work The Psychology of Crowds, Le Bon predicted the barbarism, terror, anarchy, and material and moral impoverishment that socialism would bring in the 20th century.
• Instinctivism: This branch of sociological psychologism was initiated by the British William McDougall (1871-1938). He believed that instincts are the primary determinants of human behavior. McDougall meticulously analyzed and classified human instincts. He identified a trait he called horme, or free energy, which drives individuals to act. Horme provides the impulse for realizing one's instincts. Some instincts can be fulfilled independently, while others require the presence of other people. Human instincts drive social change: for instance, wars are a result of the instinct for aggression, and law-making stems from the desire for stability.

Thus, sociological psychologism attempts to explain the nature of society through the laws of psychology, akin to how positivism applies the laws of natural science to society.