Philosophy of Society

Political Philosophy (Theory of the State)

The Emergence of Political Philosophy

The highest form of human coexistence is the state. Although the state is an integral element of life for all people living today, its essence and the laws governing its existence remain subjects of heated debate. The emergence of the state and attempts to comprehend its nature did not occur simultaneously. Early states were mostly characterized by the firm authority of chieftains or monarchs, with little opportunity to reflect on political realities. In Egypt, Sumer, Babylon, China, and India, thinkers committed their reflections on the state to writing, but these reflections mainly concerned the moral norms of governance rather than the nature of the state itself, leaving unanswered the fundamental question of what the state is.

The inhabitants of ancient states regarded power as sacred. The authority of monarchs was not based on law or popular election but on their religious role. A king was considered either a descendant of or an emissary of a deity. Administrative, military, and other functions of the ruler were secondary; the primary role of the ruler was sacred—to represent the god to the people and the people to the god. In many cultures of the Near East and the Mediterranean, monarchs led religious services, especially during the New Year festivities, since the New Year symbolized a remembrance of the world's creation. Thus, people celebrated the New Year as a renewal of creation, marked by repentance and seeking blessings for the coming year. Since these religious services were of great significance, they were led by kings. In many Greek city-states and in Rome, where monarchies had been abolished and republics established, the status of a "sacred king" was preserved, meaning that a descendant of the royal lineage continued to be enthroned to perform the traditional sacred functions of kings, even though these "sacred kings" were removed from the actual governance of the state. In an environment where political power was seen as sacred and political stability prevailed, discussions about the essence of the state did not arise.

The first reflections on the nature of the state emerged when the highly developed countries of the ancient world experienced crises or significant changes. For example, the main theme of Chinese philosophy was politics, as Chinese thinkers sought to form the ideal concept of the state. It is noteworthy that the schools of Chinese philosophy arose during a period of political crisis. China flourished during the reign of the Western Zhou dynasty (1049—771 BCE), but during the Eastern Zhou period (770—256 BCE), state power weakened, the economy was unproductive, and feudal lords exercised great arbitrary power. In these conditions, Chinese intellectuals began to ponder what the state should be like, on what principles governance should be based, and what people should do to create an environment of universal happiness. Thus, Chinese political philosophy arose during a period of serious political and economic crisis in the Chinese state.

The second region where political philosophy developed was ancient Greece. The Greeks, before the time of Alexander the Great, did not form a unified state but created small political entities known as city-states, or poleis. Each polis developed its own form of governance. For example, Sparta was ruled by a military dictatorship, while Athens embraced democracy. While discussing governance was inappropriate under dictatorship, such discussions were essential in a democracy. The first foundational theories of state governance were developed by Athenian philosophers, particularly Plato and Aristotle. It is significant that their theories emerged after Athens had experienced a series of crises: the Peloponnesian War (431—404 BCE) and the rule of the Thirty Tyrants in 404 BCE.

Medieval European political philosophy had clear ideas about the nature of power. The holder of state power was the monarch, whose status derived from three simultaneous sources: God, dynasty, and aristocracy. Thus, only a legitimate descendant of the previous monarch could become king or prince; if issues of succession arose, the final decision was made by a council of aristocrats, and the coronation took place exclusively with the Church's blessing. Reflecting on politics, when everything seemed so clear, seemed pointless. The only question that required discussion within medieval political philosophy was the relationship between ecclesiastical and state authority. This issue occupied the focus of medieval philosophers.

The situation changed when European countries experienced political crises. From 1649 to 1660, the English Civil War took place, leading to England’s transition from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional one. These changes were accompanied by profound political, economic, religious, and military transformations in English life. The collapse of traditional forms of governance compelled English intellectuals to turn to philosophical contemplation of political problems. English political philosophers produced a vast body of theoretical work, which inspired the development of political thought in other countries. Political philosophy flourished in France during the Enlightenment, with its peak marked by the French Revolution of 1789. This event redefined political priorities, proving that the driving force of political life and the source of authority was the people. Even the restoration of the monarchy in France after the revolution did not erase the new widespread conviction that the people were the source of power. The clearest proof of this is that Napoleon I Bonaparte declared himself Emperor of the French in 1804, not Emperor of France, and his nephew Napoleon III did the same in 1852. In 1830, Louis-Philippe I of Orléans was crowned King of the French.

The third domain where political thought thrived was the United States of America. From 1775 to 1783, the United States fought a war that secured its independence. The U.S. is unique in that it was the only country to gain independence from a European metropolis in the 18th century. Statehood posed a significant challenge for Americans, as they had no prior experience with governance. Unlike the English and the French, who had long-standing state-building traditions and only needed to alter their forms of government, the Americans had to start from scratch, which required them to develop a comprehensive concept of the state. The quest for the best form of government was not peaceful. Diverging views within the American population eventually led to the Civil War (1861—1865). The political achievements in the U.S. not only laid the foundation for its own governance but also served as a model for other countries.

The 20th century ushered in a new era for the development of political thought. No other century has redrawn the world’s political map as radically as the 20th century. Every country was affected by the two world wars, revolutions, and the collapse of colonialism. Old empires crumbled, and new nations emerged in their place; most colonies gained independence. Many countries, captivated by communist ideology, established dictatorships, which ultimately fell by the century’s end. All of this required a deeper understanding of political reality, the laws of its transformation, and the possibilities for forecasting the future.

Interest in political issues gave rise to a new science—political science—which became a distinct academic discipline in the 19th century. In 1857, the first department of political science was established at Columbia University (USA). By 1861, the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences had been founded in Madrid (Spain), followed by the Free School of Political Science in Paris (France) in 1871, and the School of Political Science in Columbia (USA) in 1880. In 1883, the Berlin Society for the Study of the State was created in Germany. In 1895, the London School of Economics and Political Science was founded in Britain, which remains one of the most influential educational and research institutions in the world in the fields of economics and politics. Soon after, political science departments were established in almost all major universities worldwide.

The growing interest in political studies is explained by the significance of politics. There is no individual whose life is unaffected by political circumstances. In a democracy, where the people influence both domestic and international politics, knowledge of the philosophical foundations of politics is essential. Every citizen of a state has an impact on the character of their country and the values that underlie it. Even if a university student cheats on their political science exam, their real exam will be life itself. The cost of mistakes in elections is high, and only a profound understanding of political processes can help people build a nation of happiness.