Philosophy of Society

Political Philosophy (Theory of the State)

Anarchism

Since the inception of the state, there have always been thinkers who criticized it, blaming it for the woes of humanity. This critique reached its zenith in the 19th century. Having witnessed the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, the Springtime of Nations, and a series of political transformations alongside economic development, Europeans began to reassess the role of the state. Everywhere, voices called for reform of political systems. Among these, some were radical enough to demand the complete abolition of the state. The philosophers of the time who concerned themselves with political issues criticized these systems, urging changes to the governmental structures of European nations. However, among them also emerged those who argued that no matter how the state was reformed, human happiness would remain elusive, as the state itself was an instrument of oppression and enslavement. For mankind to attain happiness, the state must be entirely abolished.

This school of political philosophy, whose adherents considered the state inherently evil and advocated its destruction, became known as anarchism. The term derives from the Greek words "ἄν" (without) and "ἀρχή" (rule or authority). Thus, anarchy means the absence of rule. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, anarchists were active throughout Europe. Anarchism during this period evolved along two distinct paths. The first was spontaneous anarchism, whose proponents were not philosophers and could not clearly articulate their views. They claimed that the state was an absolute evil that must be eradicated. To achieve this, they formed secret societies engaged in subversive activities, organized terror attacks, damaged state structures, and engaged in looting. These groups often merged with criminal elements, transforming into mere bandits who justified their actions with a poorly developed theory of anarchism. Whenever possible, these anarchist gangs would organize themselves into armed military units. Such anarchist uprisings occurred at the dawn of the 20th century, during periods of great upheaval in Europe when governments struggled to maintain order. The most striking example of this type of anarchism was Nestor Makhno (1888-1934), who led the Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine and spearheaded the peasant revolt from 1918 to 1921. Anarchist-bandit groups disappeared when strong governmental institutions were established in European countries.

The second strand of anarchism was a collection of philosophical-political movements that, on a high intellectual level, articulated critiques of the state and called for its abolition. Anarchism took several forms, all united by a common critique of the state. Anarchists saw the state as an institution of oppression and enslavement, and thus argued for its rejection. There is no pure form of anarchism; it is always intertwined with other political and philosophical systems, such as Marxism or individualism. This very connection divides anarchists into various groups.

• The foundations of individualist anarchism were laid by the Frenchman Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865) and the German Johann Kaspar Schmidt, who wrote under the pseudonym Max Stirner (1806-1856). Proudhon argued that any form of authority enslaves the individual, with the state being the worst form of enslavement. He thus called for the abolition of the state. Only when all institutions that govern human life disappear can man be free. Yet Proudhon believed that freedom was impossible without personal means of survival. Hence, he opposed the communists' call to abolish private property. A poor person cannot be free. Individuals must possess the necessary property to sustain themselves. Proudhon envisioned a society of free associations of small property owners as the ideal environment for human life. Unlike the communists, who advocated for revolution, Proudhon saw no value in it. Achieving the ideal society Proudhon envisioned was impossible through revolution, as only those with property can be truly free, and revolution merely impoverishes people, stripping them of their property. Proudhon believed that the ideal state of society could be reached through effective economic activity. The more property owners a society had, the quicker people would realize the state’s redundancy and abandon it. Stirner based his doctrine on principles similar to Proudhon's. He believed that man is an egoist who loves only himself and regards the entire world as his own property. It is natural for the egoist to remain alone. Anything that gathers people into groups—such as the state, law, or morality—is an expression of collective madness. All of these are unnatural and must therefore be discarded. The only thing a person should retain is private property, as it is natural. Only those who possess the necessary property can be free. When everyone owns property, no one will need the state. Private property is natural and a necessary condition for freedom. Stirner believed that once people recognized the oppression of the state and social institutions and amassed sufficient property, they would abandon these institutions and form "unions of egoists."
• The foundations of collective anarchism were laid by the Russian Mikhail Bakunin (1814-1876). Unlike Proudhon and Stirner, who based their anarchism on the value of individual freedom, Bakunin's thought was grounded in the freedom of the oppressed class. Influenced by Marxism, Bakunin criticized the state for oppressing the subjugated classes. However, while Marxists proposed replacing the state, Bakunin called for its total abolition. He argued that any state, even a socialist one, would serve as a tool for the oppression of the enslaved classes. Thus, true liberation would only come with the disappearance of the state. In his stance toward the state, Bakunin diverged from the Marxists.
• The foundations of anarcho-communism were laid by the Russian prince Peter Kropotkin (1842-1921), who advocated the abolition of the state and all other institutions of authority. Kropotkin believed that the basis of power is capital—those who possess wealth hold power. To rid society of power structures, it is necessary to eliminate capital. The abolition of private property would lead to freedom, allowing people to build governance structures from the bottom up.
• Anarcho-syndicalism emerged in the early 20th century, focusing on labor movements. Its leading figures were Georges Sorel (1847-1922), Anselmo Lorenzo Asperilla (1841-1914), Avram Noam Chomsky (b.1928), Franz Barwich (b.1955), and others. Anarcho-syndicalists believe that power should reside with those who provide value—namely, the workers. Humanity should reject existing institutions of authority, replacing them with unions (syndicates) of workers. In 1906, in the French city of Amiens, the Charter of Amiens was adopted, becoming the manifesto of anarcho-syndicalists. Today, anarcho-syndicalist parties exist in various countries around the world, united on an international level by the International Workers' Association.
• Anarchism has not faded into the past. It remains an ideology that continues to attract numerous adherents. Alongside older strains of anarchism (anarcho-communism and anarcho-syndicalism), the 20th and 21st centuries have seen the emergence of many young anarchist movements, representing a wide spectrum of anarchist ideologies. These movements regularly organize public demonstrations, form associations, and primarily attract the youth.