Philosophy of Society

Political Philosophy (Theory of the State)

Classification of Ideologies

An integral component of political philosophy consists of political ideologies. Every politician or actively engaged, educated citizen harbors some notion of how the state should function and which models of governance are most effective. This stance is termed a political ideology or political orientation. The history of political thought has produced a myriad of political models, around which like-minded individuals gather. A collection of people united by shared political beliefs is referred to as a political party. Each political party strives to secure representatives at all levels of government in order to influence policy and realize its ideals.

Political ideologies and parties are categorized as left or right. This division originated during the French Revolution, when members of the National Assembly (the parliament of that era) split between those who supported the monarchy and the old order, and those who advocated for revolution and the overthrow of the traditional regime. The former sat to the right of the assembly's presiding officer, earning them the label of "right," while the latter sat to the left, thus being called "left." Since then, right-wing politicians have been associated with the preservation of traditional social, political, and economic orders, while left-wing politicians have been those who call for revolutionary change and radical social transformations. Some politicians’ views allow them to be classified as left on certain issues and right on others; these individuals are referred to as centrists, positioned between left and right. If a political stance lies between centrist and left, it is termed left-centrism; if between centrist and right, right-centrism. Politicians who advocate extreme left ideals are termed far-left, while those who advocate far-right ideals are referred to as far-right. Although there is no general consensus on a clear delineation of political ideologies, capitalists, conservatives, monarchists, theocrats, traditionalists, and nationalists are generally considered right-wing, while communists, socialists, anarchists, social liberals, secularists, anti-capitalists, autonomists, and feminists are viewed as left-wing.

Political scientists have observed that in terms of radicalism, far-right and far-left groups exhibit notable similarities. This has led to the visualization of ideological distribution not along a linear spectrum with left and right at the extremes, and centrists in the middle, but rather in the form of a horseshoe (Ω), where far-right and far-left represent oppositions to centrists, just as left stands in opposition to right. A defining feature of both extremes (left and right) is their propensity for dictatorship, while centrists tend to cultivate liberalism. This classification of political ideologies has been dubbed the "horseshoe theory," developed by French philosopher Jean-Pierre Fay (born 1925), who first described it in 2002. According to the horseshoe principle, political ideologies can be divided as follows:

• Far-right (also known as ultra-right or radical right) - political forces whose adherents maintain extreme right positions and employ radical methods to implement them. Far-right groups are characterized by supremacism (the belief that some members of society are inherently superior while others are inferior, e.g., the Nazis’ attitudes towards Jews or the treatment of African Americans in early 20th-century America), segregation (the division of superior and inferior groups and the assignment of differing rights), xenophobia (hostility towards others), Nazism, ultra-nationalism, and chauvinism. Ultra-right groups typically advocate laws that restrict immigration, limit the influence of foreign cultures, and curtail minority rights. Today, the ultra-right is represented by neo-fascists and neo-Nazis.
• Right (or traditionalists) - this political orientation is relatively moderate and devoid of extremes, yet distinctly focused on preserving its traditional identity. Rightists advocate for the maintenance of traditional social, political, economic, and cultural orders. Economically, they support capitalism; religiously, they endorse traditional religiosity. In monarchies, rightists align as monarchists or royalists (those who support the king). Despite a tolerant attitude towards others, rightists champion the preservation of their own language, culture, traditions, private property, and customs—essentially all that is deemed traditional within their society. Generally, rightists call for the maintenance of the existing order and do not support change.
• Right-centrists differ from rightists in that they permit social and cultural changes but insist these changes should be evolutionary, gradual, and natural, avoiding radical steps. They are tolerant of new trends and social changes, albeit with caution.
• Centrists are political forces that strive to maintain a middle position between left and right. Their primary characteristic is an effort to avoid the extremes and totalitarianism inherent in both right and left ideologies. Centrists uphold liberalism (freedom) and pluralism (acceptance of diverse opinions and perspectives) across all spheres of human life.
• Left-centrists are political forces shaped by left ideology, yet they seek to implement it in a moderate manner. Their foundational concept is egalitarianism (from the French "égalité," meaning equality), which aims to make all people equal in economic, social, and cultural dimensions. Egalitarianism aligns them with the left, yet unlike leftists, left-centrists do not endorse revolutions, radical changes, or the imposition of a singular ideology. Their advocacy for liberalism draws them closer to centrists and distinguishes them from both extremes. The aspiration to alter social and governmental structures to achieve universal equality and calls to renounce traditions that uphold social inequality place left-centrists in opposition to rightists. Left-centrists often label their parties as socialist.
• Leftists represent a political ideology that advocates for profound social changes. Throughout the history of political thought, leftists have been defined as those opposing the prevailing order in their country. During the French Revolution, leftists fully emerged as a distinct group, denoting those who opposed the social and governmental order in France. Given that France was a monarchy before the revolution, characterized by social inequality and traditional Catholicism, the leftists who initiated the revolution sought to dismantle all factors sustaining inequality and were anti-clerical. Their revolutionary stance was so protest-oriented that they even altered the names of days and months, the calendar system, and the week’s duration—anything that reminded them of traditional life. In the 19th century, Marxism emerged and quickly merged with leftist ideology, advocating for the necessity of revolution and radical changes. From that point on, Marxism became the foundational concept of leftist ideology, although in the 18th and 19th centuries, leftists could not be entirely equated with Marxists, as the leftist ideology of the French Revolution predates Marxism. In the 20th century, all leftists adhered to Marxism, viewing all that was shaped by tradition as evil and something to be renounced. Marxists criticized religion, monarchy, capitalism, private property, social stratification, and more. To fall within the ambit of leftist criticism, one only needed to be somehow connected to tradition. Leftist parties typically identify as communist, socialist, or social-democratic.
• Far-left (ultra-left or radical left) - political forces that emerged in the 20th century following the victory of revolution in several countries. Far-left proponents argue that leftists (Marxists) lacked the courage to effectuate a great revolution. Far-left groups take leftist ideas to the extreme: while leftists renounced private ownership of the means of production but allowed for ownership of everything else, far-left advocates call for the renunciation of all property; if leftists proclaimed the welfare state as a vector for future development, far-left groups advocate for the complete abolition of the state. Thus, far-left also includes anarchists and anarcho-communists, who believe that people should abolish states altogether.

This classification of political ideologies is increasingly subject to criticism in contemporary political science. The views of most parties, politicians, and citizens are difficult to categorize. A single individual may adhere to one position on some issues and an entirely different one on others, being right in one context and left in another, centrist in one instance and extreme in another. Nevertheless, there is no other or better classification of political ideologies than the horseshoe theory.