Philosophy of Society

Political Philosophy (Theory of the State)

Utopias

The Renaissance era enriched political philosophy with another remarkable contribution—utopias. The fascination with Plato’s philosophy, which shaped the trajectory of Renaissance thought, inspired philosophers to revisit Plato’s theory of the state. Unlike Aristotle, who analyzed existing states, Plato sought to define the ideal state, prompting Renaissance thinkers to pursue visions of such a state. Among the political utopists of this period, Thomas More and Tommaso Campanella held prominent positions.

Thomas More (1478-1535), who served as Lord Chancellor of England, was executed by Protestants for refusing to renounce the Catholic Church. His work Utopia (1516), the title of which translates to “a place that does not exist,” articulates his reflections on the ideal state. In More’s view, Tudor-era England faced numerous challenges, primarily stemming from private property and the pervasive desire to amass personal wealth. He argued that an ideal state must be built on reason, with a fair distribution of resources.

Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639) penned The City of the Sun, in which he also critiqued private ownership and articulated his vision of an ideal state. In the City of the Sun, all property is communal, allowing each citizen to benefit from shared resources distributed equitably. Since no one seeks excessive accumulation, the workday is brief, and residents devote much of their time to education. The state is governed by a Metaphysician, the wisest citizen, aided by a triumvirate representing strength, wisdom, and love. The Ministry of Strength oversees matters of war and peace; the Ministry of Wisdom manages education; and the Ministry of Love regulates economic affairs and family life.

In the 18th century, utopian socialism emerged—a strand of political philosophy asserting that the root of human suffering lies in private property, and that once humanity relinquishes it, happiness will follow. The wealthy, having seized property, enslaved the poor and established social inequality, with the state serving as an institution that enforces this disparity. Abolishing private property would render the state unnecessary.

Jean Mellet (1664-1729) participated in the discourse on natural law, a topic explored by numerous thinkers of his time. Unlike others, Mellet posited that natural law pertains not to the rights of individuals, but to the rights of the working populace. The wealthy, who control the means of production, violate natural law, thereby subjugating workers. The state, as an organized force based on private ownership, perpetuates this subjugation. Only through revolution can workers abolish private property and the state, reclaiming their natural rights.

Étienne-Gabriel Morelly (1715-1780) asserted that private ownership contradicts reason. In a state of nature, individuals had no private property and were thus virtuous. Ownership, he argued, breeds malice, fostering social inequality and the institutions that uphold it.

François Noël Babeuf (1760-1797), who signed his works as Gracchus Babeuf, believed that private ownership generated much of society’s ills. He argued for not only the abandonment of private property but also the establishment of a revolutionary dictatorship to enforce repressive measures against any tendencies toward accumulation, educational advantages, and the pursuit of knowledge. Only under conditions of universal equality can true freedom exist.

Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Count de Saint-Simon (1760-1825), proclaimed the liberation of the working class from the yoke of capitalism as his life’s creed. He noted a critical pattern: when prevailing beliefs and values lose credibility and cease to be esteemed, the social order collapses. Saint-Simon contended that the mindset of his contemporaries was shaped by the positive sciences, which superseded earlier ideologies. This transition from ideologies to positive sciences indicated a loss of faith in dominant views, signaling an impending social upheaval. As feudalism gave way to industrial society, scientists, industrialists, and intellectuals would replace the feudal lords. While Saint-Simon did not dismiss private property or its associated institutions, he believed their roles must transform, with intellect becoming the primary capital rather than material wealth.