History of Philosophy

Philosophy of the Near East

Kalam

The Arabic term "kalam" means "word." In early Islam, this term was used as a synonym for the Quran, implying that the Quran is the word of God. Over time, "kalam" began to denote the Muslim scholars for whom the Quran was the highest authority, and whose efforts were directed towards the rational justification of its truths. These scholars are known as mutakallimun. Kalam is represented by three schools, each with its distinct features:

• Mu'tazilites are the largest school of kalam. Its founders were Wasil ibn Ata (699-748) and Amr ibn Ubayd (699-761). The followers of this school focused on five theses, analyzing and defending them in an attempt to interpret and rationalize Islamic dogmas:

✵ The first thesis, which the Mu'tazilites pondered, is tawhid, the belief in the Oneness of God. Tawhid is a fundamental tenet of faith for Muslims, and its acceptance is a prerequisite for embracing Islam. The Mu'tazilites sought arguments to prove tawhid and argued that Allah is absolutely transcendent. Muslims believe that the Quran is the immanent aspect or expression of the transcendent Allah, and thus is uncreated. The Mu'tazilites viewed this teaching as a violation of tawhid, asserting instead that the Quran was created. The debate over the uncreatedness of the Quran was one of the most active discussions in Islamic thought.

✵ The second thesis of the Mu'tazilites is Divine Justice: Allah is absolutely just; He rewards good and punishes evil. For Divine Justice to be realized, individuals must have the capacity to bear responsibility for their actions. Otherwise, God could not execute justice by rewarding good and punishing evil. Thus, the Mu'tazilites advocated the doctrine of free will.

✵ The third thesis of kalam is the retribution in the afterlife. Muslims, like followers of other religions, believe that after death, individuals receive reward or punishment for their actions in earthly life. The Mu'tazilites justified the doctrine of retribution based on the belief in God's absolute justice.

✵ In moral views, the Mu'tazilites were notable for their leniency. Muslims believe that a Muslim who has committed a grave sin should be considered as having left the community, meaning they have strayed from Islam. The Mu'tazilites argued that even a sinner who has not renounced their faith should not be expelled from the community. If someone has sinned, they are in an intermediate state, neither fully Muslim nor non-believer.

✵ The Mu'tazilites were convinced that it is impossible to be spiritually and morally good while in a sinful environment. Most temptations arise from one’s surroundings. It is easier to remain virtuous in a perfect environment than among sinners. The Mu'tazilites urged the promotion of moral and spiritual excellence within one’s environment.

In the 9th century, the Mu'tazilites emerged as one of the foremost schools of Islamic thought. Despite grounding their views solely on the Quran and striving to rationalize its truths, their arguments extended beyond orthodox Islam, thereby being perceived as heretical.

• Asharites were the second major direction within kalam. This school was founded by Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Ismail al-Ash'ari (873-936). Al-Ash'ari and his followers occupied a middle ground between orthodox Islam and the Mu'tazilites, attempting to reconcile their positions. They believed that, in reality, there were no fundamental differences between these viewpoints; the theologians of both schools expressed the same truths, albeit in different terms.

✵ While orthodox theologians emphasized faith and the Mu'tazilites reason, the Asharites asserted that religion necessitates both reason and faith. If truth could be apprehended by reason alone, then the Quran, prophets, and religion would be superfluous.

✵ Orthodox theologians took the attributes of God described in the Quran literally, whereas the Mu'tazilites contended that God possesses no attributes, and the descriptions of attributes in the Quran are merely metaphors. In contrast, the Asharites believed that Allah is wholly transcendent and therefore has no attributes that express His essence; however, the attributes described in the Quran are not metaphors but external expressions. Thus, Allah lacks attributes in His essence but acquires them in the process of expression.

✵ A third point of contention concerned the Quran. Orthodox theologians maintained that the Quran is uncreated, while the Mu'tazilites believed it was created. The Asharites taught that the content of the Quran is uncreated and expresses Allah's truth, but all its material aspects (text, words, language) are created.

✵ Another issue debated in contemporary Muslim philosophy was the relationship between God and the world. The Mu'tazilites believed that God initiated the world, while all subsequent processes are governed by causal relationships. God does not interfere in worldly processes. Conversely, the representatives of falsafa held that the world emanates from God and thus is not an independent entity but merely a part of God. The Asharites criticized both positions, as they believed each fails to acknowledge human freedom.

• A significant figure in Islamic thought was al-Ghazali (1058-1111). Born into a family of Sufis (Muslim mystics), he mastered Greek philosophy and Islamic theology and belonged to the Asharite kalam. Al-Ghazali's intellectual quest led him to disillusionment with philosophy, concluding that it could not lead to the knowledge of truth but only confuses it. He saw only contradictions in the texts of ancient philosophers. Consequently, al-Ghazali urged abandonment of philosophy in favor of focusing on faith and mysticism. His stance had a profound impact on Islamic thought and set it against philosophical tradition. This is why philosophy in the Muslim world did not achieve the same success as in Europe, India, or China.
• Maturidites were the third direction within kalam, founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (870-944). This theological school had numerous followers in the Ottoman Empire and later among Muslims in India. While the Asharites sought a middle path between the Mu'tazilites and orthodox thinkers, the Maturidites mostly criticized the Mu'tazilites in many contentious issues. Regarding the attributes of God, the Maturidites argued that they cannot be justified or comprehended by human reason. God is what He wishes to be and does what He wishes to do. There are no criteria for evaluating God's actions; if such criteria existed, they would be higher and independent of God. In reality, nothing surpasses God, and everything derives from Him. Even the good that God does is good not because God acts within moral limits, but because He acts. God's actions are good because He performs them. Whatever God does is good solely because He does it. The actions of all other beings should not be assessed against some abstract criterion of goodness but against the actions and will of God. On the issue of free will, the Maturidites held that although a person can independently make decisions about their actions, they only carry them out with God's help, and thus their freedom is limited by God's will.