History of Philosophy

Philosophy of the Near East

Ishraqism of Suhrawardi

In the 12th century, a surge of mysticism and Gnosticism emerged in the Islamic world, largely due to the influential Islamic philosopher and mystic Yaḥyā Suhrawardī (1155-1191), who was honored with the title Shaykh al-Ishraq (Master of Illumination). Suhrawardī, a Persian, sought to infuse Islamic thought with Zoroastrian mysticism of light. He claimed that he was not establishing a new doctrine but rather continuing the thoughts of ancient sages. Suhrawardī considered Hermes Trismegistus, Zoroaster, and Plato as his predecessors. He believed that there once existed a society of sages led by Allah Himself, who knew the truth. Suhrawardī encouraged his followers to study kalam (Islamic theology) and falsafa (philosophy) only as a prelude to the knowledge of true reality. Mystical illumination could only be attained by an educated person, and kalam and falsafa served as valuable tools for mental training. However, once a person transcends to a higher, mystical level of understanding, rational speculations and meaningless debates of kalam and falsafa should be cast aside as mere empty words. Thus, for Suhrawardī, both kalam and falsafa were merely preliminaries to mysticism.

The central concept in Suhrawardī’s teaching is "ishraq" (illumination). In Suhrawardī’s philosophy, "ishraq" has three meanings. First, it refers to the illumination of the intellect by a higher truth. Just as material things present themselves to the intellect as phenomena, so too do higher truths reveal themselves as ishraq. Second, ishraq or Ishraqism designates the mystical philosophy founded by Suhrawardī. Third, Suhrawardī used "ishraq" to describe the fellowship of ancient sages who possessed the higher truth. In one text, Suhrawardī narrates a fictitious meeting with Aristotle, who, in this context, is depicted as a Platonized figure. In Eastern Islamic philosophy, Aristotle was often seen as a Platonist. During this imagined encounter, Aristotle advised Suhrawardī to delve inward and discover the truth within himself. The mystical insights Suhrawardī gained through this introspection became the core of his mystical philosophy. He identified God with the Supreme Light.

From the Supreme Light emanates the first angel, whom Suhrawardī called Bagham in the new Persian language, corresponding to the Avestan term Vohu-Mana, meaning "Good Thought." The Zoroastrians used this term to refer to the first of the Amesha Spentas, or the first manifestation of Ahura Mazda. The relationship between the Supreme Light and Bagham is modeled on the father-son dynamic, illumination-contemplation, truth-knowledge. Thus, the Supreme Light represents the first level of the emanative system of being, while Bagham represents the second. From Bagham emanates the third level of existence—angels. Suhrawardī equated angels with celestial luminaries and assigned them names, many of which had Zoroastrian origins. Among these angels, the angel of humanity, Jibril, holds a special place. The Supreme Light and Bagham transcend the world, but the realm of angels is already part of the world. Suhrawardī identified four levels of the world: Jabarut—the realm of angels and pure intellects; Alam al-Mithal—the realm of forms; Malakut—the realm of heavenly and human souls; and Mulk—the realm of darkness. The ultimate point of emanation is darkness—Barzakh. In his interpretation of Barzakh, Suhrawardī leaned more toward Zoroastrianism than Neoplatonism. In Neoplatonism, darkness and non-being are seen as the exhaustion of the light of the One. In contrast, Zoroastrianism views darkness, personified as Ahriman, as one of the two principles of the world. According to Suhrawardī, Barzakh has an ontological status as absolute evil. Matter arises at the boundary where forms (Alam al-Mithal) intersect with Barzakh. Suhrawardī, like in Platonism, viewed the human soul as a lost entity. Having been seduced by darkness, the soul strayed from the light but still has the chance to return. In Suhrawardī’s mystical philosophy, an eclectic blend of Islam, Zoroastrianism, Eastern philosophy, Neoplatonism, Gnosticism, and Manichaeism is evident. Ishraqism can confidently be termed a highly intellectual revival of Gnosticism within the framework of Islam. After Suhrawardī’s death, his disciples and followers continued his teachings, establishing an order that did not always exist legally. Suhrawardī managed to preserve his influence on mystical currents in Islam up to the present day.