History of Philosophy

Philosophy of the Far East

Nastika

In addition to the six orthodox schools, known as Astika, which accept the authority of the Vedas, Indian philosophy also developed three heterodox schools that rejected the Vedas. Among the Nastika traditions is Charvaka-Lokayata. The philosophers of this school dismissed the authority of the Vedas, and since the Vedas are a source of religion and worldview for Hindus, they also renounced belief in God. They recognized only one source of knowledge: the senses. Nothing but the senses can produce knowledge. Based on this, they constructed their worldview: if knowledge is only attainable through the senses, then it is reasonable to acknowledge only the existence of what can be perceived sensually, which includes only material things. Thus, only the material world exists. Charvaka-Lokayata philosophers rejected the concept of karma, or moral law, as they did not believe in God, and without a legislator, there can be no law. In the realm of ethics, they advocated hedonism. Without God or karma, striving for moral perfection is senseless. The only worthwhile pursuit is pleasure.

Another Nastika school is Jainism. Jains (followers of Jainism) rejected the authority of the Vedas and the religious tradition of Hinduism, replacing it with their own religious quest. Thus, Jainism evolved into a distinct religion, which today has many followers in India. The roots of Jainism are lost in history. Jains claim that their spiritual tradition was established by 24 Tirthankaras, or religious leaders. Their names have been preserved in tradition, but the biographies of most remain obscure. The last of them was Mahavira (599-527 BCE), who systematized Jainism. Modern Jainism is divided into two sects: Digambaras (sky-clad) - a more austere sect in which monks wear no clothes; and Shvetambaras (white-clad) - a less austere sect in which monks wear white clothing.

Jains focus on the individual, their inner world, rather than what lies outside of the person. Consequently, their teachings say little about God and the world, but much about the individual, especially concerning morality. Jains believe that perfect knowledge is unattainable for humans, thus all human knowledge is relative. Hence, defending any belief is senseless.

The primary task of a person is to free oneself from the bondage caused by anger, pride, delusion, and greed. The soul's dependence on the body forms a vicious circle: the dependent soul yearns to merge with matter to satisfy its passions; this merger generates passion, which in turn pushes the individual to reconnect with the body. This yearning leads to rebirth in a body that provides the best conditions for indulging in passions, and existence in such a body strengthens this dependence. To free oneself from karma, one must halt the influx of matter into the soul and cleanse the soul of karma. The main cause of accumulating bad karma is ignorance. Therefore, Jains devote much attention to education, with the primary spiritual goal of facilitating liberation from karma. Achieving salvation from karma requires three essential conditions: right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct. Every Jain must adhere to five moral duties:

• Ahimsa (non-harm to any life) - the fundamental moral principle of Jainism. Jains are so meticulous in avoiding harm to any living being that monks wear a cloth over their mouths to prevent inhaling insects, sweep the ground before them to avoid stepping on insects, refrain from using vehicles or flying, avoid moving at night, and abstain from eating meat, among other practices. Ahimsa is based on the belief that all living beings have equal dignity.
• Satya (truthfulness) - abstaining from falsehood. Satya is considered a derivative principle of Ahimsa, as falsehood is often used to acquire what belongs to others or to present oneself as better than one actually is.
• Asteya (non-stealing) - abstaining from theft. Like Satya, Asteya is derived from Ahimsa, as Jains believe that depriving someone of their rightful possessions equates to depriving them of essential means for living, thus constituting indirect killing.
• Brahmacharya - abstinence from indulgence in sensual pleasures. A Jain seeks to avoid pleasures that are not essential for survival. Jain monks discipline their bodies through exposure to cold, heat, rain, drought, fasting, and various discomforts.
• Aparigraha (non-attachment to possessions) - abstaining from attachment to material things. Perfect adherence to these principles is achievable only by monks. This distinction defines the nature of Jainism and Buddhism. True Jains and Buddhists are monks; all behavioral rules in these religions are intended for monks. Jains, like Buddhists, believe that only monks can attain Nirvana. Laypeople are considered sympathetic to these religions, adhering to the precepts as much as possible. If laypeople diligently follow these principles, they will cleanse their karma and be reborn as monks in their next life, thus gaining a chance to achieve Nirvana.

The third Nastika tradition is Buddhism, which, like Jainism, constitutes a distinct religion. The founder of Buddhism was Siddhartha Gautama Shakyamuni (563-483 BCE), more widely known as the Buddha. Born into a royal family, he left the palace in search of enlightenment, studied under the most renowned ascetics of his time, and ultimately established his own spiritual path. Upon attaining enlightenment (bodhi), he became the Buddha (the Enlightened One). The Buddha explored two extremes in his quest for happiness: initially, the luxury, pleasure, and ease of palace life, and later, the severe asceticism of Hindu monks; yet neither path brought him salvation. He named his own path the Middle Way, which avoids the extremes of hedonism and asceticism. The central concern for the Buddha was how to escape suffering. His response and the foundation of Buddhist doctrine are encapsulated in the Four Noble Truths: 1) All in the world is suffering; 2) Suffering has a cause; 3) Suffering ceases only when the cause is removed; 4) The removal of the cause is possible through the Eightfold Path.

The Buddha taught that human life is suffering, culminating in death, which renders life meaningless. People seek liberation from suffering, and the only way to achieve this is enlightenment, which involves realizing that nothing truly exists—not even the self. All is illusion; yet people mistakenly believe in their own existence. They cling to this illusion and suffer when it fades. To free oneself from suffering, one must discard the illusion and understand that nothing exists. Attaining enlightenment requires moral refinement, which the Buddha referred to as the Eightfold Path (right understanding, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration). When one achieves enlightenment (bodhi), they transcend illusion and enter Nirvana. The understanding of Nirvana differs between Hindus and Buddhists: for Hindus, Nirvana is liberation from the illusion of individuality and merging with Brahman, while for Buddhists, Nirvana is liberation from the illusion of individuality and dissolution into absolute nothingness. If one has not attained enlightenment, they remain trapped in the cycle of samsara (reincarnations) and are reborn into one of the realms according to their karma. There are six realms into which one might be reborn: the realm of devas (gods), the realm of asuras (demigods), the realm of humans, the realm of animals, the realm of pretas (hungry ghosts), and hell. Enlightenment and Nirvana can only be achieved by monks, while laypeople are encouraged to live as closely as possible to the monastic life. They are bound by a moral code comprising five precepts: not to kill any living being, not to take what is not given, not to engage in sexual misconduct, not to speak falsehood, and not to consume intoxicants.

Followers of the Buddha recorded his teachings and the commentaries of prominent Buddhist teachers. These records became the sacred scriptures of Buddhism known as the Tripitaka (Three Baskets). It consists of three parts:

• Vinaya Pitaka (Basket of Discipline) - contains disciplinary rules for Buddhist monks.
• Sutta Pitaka (Basket of Discourses) - contains texts for the education of Buddhist monks and laypeople in the form of parables.
• Abhidhamma Pitaka (Basket of Higher Doctrine) - contains texts on philosophy, ethics, psychology, epistemology, and other topics. These texts do not include the Buddha's own statements but rather the works of his disciples.

From the inception of the Buddhist community, different schools emerged, each interpreting the Buddha’s teachings in various ways. Today, Buddhism is divided into three main sects, distinguished by their views on the roles of the Buddha, bodhisattvas, and lamas in the spiritual life of Buddhists:

• Theravada (the Way of the Elders), sometimes disparagingly called Hinayana (the Lesser Vehicle), is a form of Buddhism that holds each individual responsible for their own salvation, believing that no one can assist another in achieving Nirvana. The Buddha left his teachings and set an example of enlightenment. By following this example, individuals can traverse the same path as the Buddha, but each must do so independently. In Theravada, there is no veneration of the Buddha; the focus is on meditation and mastering sacred texts.
• Mahayana (the Great Vehicle) emphasizes that the Buddha did not immediately enter Nirvana after enlightenment but stayed in the world to help others find their way to Nirvana. Even after death, the Buddha remains in the spiritual realm to assist others in attaining enlightenment, motivated by compassion. Many others have also attained enlightenment and become Buddhas themselves, remaining in various realms to aid others; these are known as bodhisattvas. The Mahayana cult is rich in the veneration and praise of the Buddha and bodhisattvas.
• Vajrayana (the Diamond Vehicle) is the third major sect of Buddhism. Followers of Vajrayana, like those of Mahayana, believe that the Buddha and bodhisattvas assist people in attaining enlightenment. However, unlike Mahayana, Vajrayana practitioners emphasize that enlightenment can be achieved within one's lifetime, not after death, and thus monks (lamas) can act as helpers and intermediaries. Prominent representatives of Vajrayana include Tibetan lamas. In Vajrayana, lamas also serve as spiritual leaders, teachers, mentors, and protectors.

Thus, followers of Theravada assert that individuals must achieve enlightenment through their own efforts; followers of Mahayana believe bodhisattvas can help; and followers of Vajrayana teach that both bodhisattvas and lamas can assist. Today, Buddhism is one of the world’s major religions, predominantly practiced in the Far East. However, Buddhist philosophical concepts have gained global popularity. In Europe and America, many people, though not Buddhists, study Hindu and Buddhist philosophy and attempt to incorporate some of its principles into their lives. Zen Buddhism, a movement prevalent in China, Japan, and Korea, has played a significant role in popularizing Buddhism. Zen emphasizes the illusory nature of the world and advocates abandoning rational knowledge. Zen meditation aims to dismantle logic and break the standards that, according to Zen Buddhists, confine and enslave one in a world of illusion. Liberation from rigid logical categories is seen as a means to escape the conventional but mistaken worldview.