History of Philosophy

Philosophy of the Far East

Daoism

In contrast to Confucianism stands another school of Chinese religious-philosophical thought: Dao-de-jia, or Daoism. While Confucianism advocates an active approach to building an ideal state and the best form of governance, Daoism espouses non-action. Daoists argue that the Dao governs the world and human life best when unobstructed. Any active endeavor does not actualize the Dao but merely obstructs its function. People who engage in constant activity, even with the best intentions, believe they are contributing positively, yet they actually hinder the Dao’s ability to govern the world and replace the Dao’s effective management with their clumsy actions. This perspective was partly a response to social changes: if public activity proved unbeneficial, Daoists chose to focus on personal spiritual and physical health, longevity, and inner peace.

Yang Zhu (6th century BCE) was the first to articulate Daoist ideas. He rejected political careers, accumulated no material wealth, and aimed to remain inconspicuous. He held that life was the ultimate value; if it is granted to a person, that person should preserve it. High status and wealth demand great effort to attain and maintain. By expending one's life energy on these pursuits, one wastes it. By maintaining tranquility and detachment, one preserves both physical and mental health, thus extending life. One should conduct oneself in a manner that does not hinder living long and happily.

An apt illustration of his views is the example of a tree often used by Daoists. A tree growing in the middle of a road will be cut down to prevent obstruction. A tree in the forest that is valuable and useful will also be cut down for human use. Only a tree growing in a place where it does not hinder anyone and is not needed will remain untouched. Similarly, a sage should not violate laws and basic rules of behavior; violations result in punishment. Moreover, a sage should aim to be minimally useful to others, as greater usefulness leads to quicker exploitation and depletion of one's life energy. This is the principle of the utility of the non-useful. What benefits a person is what is non-useful to those around him. Yang Zhu’s focus on valuing life became a foundational element of Daoism.

The most prominent Daoist thinker was Laozi (6th-5th centuries BCE). The name "Laozi" means "Old Master" or "Old Child." The treatise Dao-de-jing is attributed to Laozi. To him, the Dao is an ineffable and indefinable principle that cannot be expressed in words or given any form. The Dao exists beyond forms and properties, beyond the material world. It is the law of existence according to which everything arises, exists, ceases, and changes. There is nothing that does not arise from the Dao or exist in accordance with it.

The Dao is not only the law of universal existence but also the law of human life. A sage is one who understands the Dao and seeks to align with it, not contradicting its laws. A sage should be modest, refrain from accumulating status and wealth, renounce ambition, and allow the Dao to act in his life. If a person does not interfere with natural processes, the Dao will act freely, leading to better outcomes than human governance. A wise ruler is one who understands the utility of the non-useful. The ruler’s task is not special active engagement but the ability to not obstruct natural processes.

The third great Daoist thinker was Zhuangzi (369-286 BCE). He taught that in every person resides de, or the radiance of the Dao. If one allows de to act within oneself, one will be happy. However, if one replaces de with human behavioral constructs, one will face problems and unhappiness. A great bird can travel vast distances, which makes it happy. A small bird, despite its limited flight, is also content. If one were to shorten the legs and wings of the great bird to resemble the small one, or extend the legs and wings of the small bird to resemble the great one, both would suffer. Similarly, each person has their own de, and it makes them happy. Conforming to others’ standards brings only misfortune. Zhuangzi referred to the principle of wise governance as management through non-management.

Thus, Daoism centers on the call for a quiet and peaceful life. A wise person does what helps them live; they do not waste energy on trivial matters but preserve life. Daoism incorporated yin-yang-jia, which introduced divination and astrology, and merged with Chinese folk religion, providing it with a philosophical understanding. Today, Daoism comprises several religious-cultural complexes: ceremonial Daoism (teaching about higher powers and ways to honor them), Daoist magic, Daoist divination, inner alchemy (the search for immortality through artificial means), and the school of action and retribution (teaching that every human action has appropriate consequences). Daoism remains a cornerstone of traditional Chinese religiosity, with elements permeating other cultures. For example, Daoist magical symbols are noticeable in Europe and America, feng shui is popular, and some people are interested in Daoist practices.