History of Philosophy

Philosophy of the Far East

Confucianism

Confucianism, or Ru jia (the "School of Scholars"), emerged as the philosophical doctrine that shaped Chinese culture, formulated by former scholars. During the Western Zhou period, these scholars served as advisors to the emperor and aristocrats, overseeing adherence to customs, alignment of political decisions with history, education, and manners, thus embodying education and culture. In the Eastern Zhou era, as with any period of chaos, scholars became redundant. Nevertheless, they did not despair but sought to explain the crisis, attributing it to the neglect of traditions. The Western Zhou was a successful dynasty, and the people were happy during its rule because traditions were upheld. Hence, to restore national happiness, a return to traditions and customs was necessary. Confucians not only theorized on this matter but actively acted: they established schools that became the most effective educational and cultural centers of their time, imparting traditional knowledge, court rituals, and history to the youth to cultivate a generation that could underpin China’s cultural revival.

The principal ideologist of Confucianism was Confucius (551-479 BCE), known in Latinized form as Confucius, whose teachings laid the foundation for this school. He advocated that:

• The preservation of traditions and rituals practiced during the Western Zhou was essential for the success of governance and the happiness of the people. Adhering to customs fosters respect for authority, the state, and the past, providing a solid foundation for building the future.
• Confucius introduced the concept of "rectification of names," asserting that each individual should be named according to their talents. If someone lacks the talent to be a ruler but holds that position, their title should be corrected to reflect their true capabilities.
• Every position and status demands specific duties. Confucius distinguished between two motives for behavior: Yi (duty, righteousness), the noble motive where a person fulfills obligations due to their position without expecting rewards or fearing punishment, and Li (ritual), a lesser motive driven by personal gain. The essence of Yi, the selfless regard for others, is rooted in the virtue of Ren (humanity, benevolence).

Confucius' ideas were further developed by other Confucian thinkers:

• Mencius (4th century BCE) argued that a well-organized state and a happy people can only exist under the rule of wise rulers. Humans are inherently good. To manifest this inherent goodness, they must be educated and cultivated. Goodness is an implicit potential within people, realized through education and nurturing. Evil is external, introduced by the world. In any situation, spontaneous human actions are good, and evil arises when people start assessing their personal benefits. Mencius expanded on the distinction between da ren (great person) and xiao ren (small person), asserting that the state’s task is to cultivate education and upbringing to make everyone a great person. To develop their inherent goodness, individuals must be in society, as humans are social beings who cannot realize their potential outside of societal contexts.
• Xunzi (4th-3rd centuries BCE) believed that human nature is inherently evil, representing raw material; goodness is achieved through learning. Without nature, there would be nothing to cultivate, and without culture, nature alone could not become virtuous. People become good not due to their nature but through the influence of society. Humans are born with tendencies towards evil, primarily driven by self-interest and sensory pleasures. However, they can become good and wise through self-cultivation and the absorption of cultural achievements. People unite in society not out of noble motives but for survival. United, they become strong and capable of overcoming nature. To maintain a strong and stable society, specific behavioral rules are necessary. Xunzi justified the Confucian idealization of rituals, asserting that without them, people would vie for their desires, and rituals prevent mutual destruction.
• Dong Zhongshu (2nd century BCE) attempted to integrate the contributions of Ru jia and Yin-Yang Jia. If a person is a microcosm of Heaven, then they must also embody two forces similar to Yin and Yang: Xin (human nature) and Qing (emotions, feelings, passions). The spiritual life of a person is a struggle between the good seeds of Xin and the evil seeds of Qing. Human nature is neither inherently good nor evil but contains both good and evil seeds. Which seed develops depends on the circumstances shaping the individual’s character. To become good, a person requires culture and education. Goodness exists within a person but must be actualized for them to become truly good.

During the Han Dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE), which succeeded the Qin Dynasty, Confucianism became the official ideology of China. At this time, every educated Chinese was expected to be well-versed in Confucian texts, and the entire educational system, upbringing, and administration were grounded in Confucian principles. Confucianism underwent a significant evolution during this period. Anyone aspiring to become a government official had to study Confucian texts and pass the imperial examinations, known as keju. The results of these exams determined the official’s rank and the level of authority they could wield. The highest officials, or mandarins, were examined by the emperor himself. Depending on the level of state service a candidate aspired to, they mastered a specific set of writings. Every official was required to be well-acquainted with the Confucian Five Classics (Wu Jing), namely the five books compiled by Confucius: the I Ching (Book of Changes), dealing with the interpretation of trigrams and hexagrams, the interactions of Yin and Yang energies, and divination rules; the Book of Songs (Shi Jing), containing 305 poetic works (shi) from various periods; the Book of Documents (Shu Jing), encompassing historical accounts, real stories and legends, official documents, imperial edicts, instructions to officials, and governmental regulations from 2357 to 627 BCE; the Book of Rites (Li Ji), describing court and noble rituals of the Zhou Dynasty; and the Spring and Autumn Annals (Chun Qiu), which details the history of the state of Lu from 722 to 479 BCE.

Candidates for the highest government positions were required to master the Thirteen Classics, which included the three historical books (the I Ching, Book of Documents, and Book of Songs), three ritual texts collectively known as the Three Rites (the Zhou Li or Rites of Zhou, the Yi Li or Ceremonies and Rites, and the Li Ji or Book of Rites), three commentaries on the Spring and Autumn Annals (the Zuo Zhuan or Commentary of Zuo, the Gongyang Zhuan or Commentary of Gongyang, and the Guliang Zhuan or Commentary of Guliang), and four additional works (the Analects or Lunyu, which recorded Confucius' sayings and actions, becoming the most popular Confucian book; the Classic of Filial Piety or Xiao Jing, which presented Confucian teachings on filial relations; the Erya, a dictionary of Confucian terminology; and the Mencius, a treatise by Mencius).

Since Confucians aimed to enlighten the general populace, they prepared a condensed version of the Thirteen Classics known as the Four Books, intended for general education. This included the complete text of the Analects, the complete text of the Mencius, and two chapters from the Book of Rites, which were used as separate treatises under the titles Da Xue and Zhong Yong.

The development of Confucianism led to the formation of a Confucian cult and excessive idealization of Confucius' ideas. Within the Confucian community, reactions to this state of affairs were mixed. The situation was exacerbated by the fact that during the Qin era, when Confucians were persecuted, their texts were destroyed, leading to doubts among scholars about whether the texts popularized during the Han era were genuinely authentic or merely reconstructions of destroyed Confucian texts. Some Confucians asserted that the texts popularized during the Han era were authentic, supporting the formation of the Confucian cult and interpreting Confucianism through the lens of Mencius. Others believed that the authentic texts had been lost, and what was popularized was a restoration of the lost works. They rejected the cult of Confucius and viewed Confucianism through the lens of Xunzi. As state support during the Han period favored the former perspective, the Thirteen Classics included the texts of Mencius, while those of Xunzi were excluded.

For centuries, Confucians focused on issues related to the organization of social and state life, the development of good models of governance, education, and upbringing, but they largely neglected metaphysical and spiritual questions. In the early second millennium, Buddhism actively penetrated China, which, although acquiring distinct Chinese characteristics, remained distant from social and political issues, offering answers to transcendental questions instead. Over its more than fifteen centuries of development in India, Buddhism developed a unique metaphysics absent in Confucianism. Unable to address the questions posed by society, Confucianism fell behind Buddhism and Daoism, which had more to say in this regard. This spurred the development of new themes within Confucianism. Despite advancements in metaphysics, Confucianism remained the primary teacher for the Chinese in matters of life, morality, culture, history, traditions, and customs.