History of Philosophy

Philosophy of the Far East

Chinese Philosophy

While Indian philosophy developed within the context of religion, seeking answers to religious questions, Chinese philosophy emerged as a political and social endeavor. The origins of Chinese philosophy can be clearly traced to historical circumstances. From 1046 to 256 BCE, China was ruled by the Zhou dynasty, which is divided into two periods. The first period, known as the Western Zhou, lasted from 1046 to 771 BCE and marked a time of flourishing for China. During this era, all power was concentrated in the hands of the emperor; the country experienced cultural, economic, and political development, and the traditions of Chinese civilization were established, shaping the worldview of the Chinese people. However, in the 8th century BCE, China experienced a political crisis that significantly weakened the emperor’s power, dismantled central authority, and led to the rise of aristocratic influence. This period of stagnation, known as the Eastern Zhou (771-256 BCE), saw the decline of both the political system and Chinese culture. During the Western Zhou, state officials played a crucial role in building Chinese culture. In the Eastern Zhou period, the imperial court could no longer sustain its army of officials, leading to their dismissal. These individuals, who had been the intellectual elite of the nation, began to reflect on the reasons for the decline and what needed to be done to restore the lost order. Thus, former officials became philosophers, giving rise to Chinese philosophy. Given their differing views, they founded various schools of thought.
Chinese political and social philosophy is closely intertwined with religion and the worldview it constructs. The Chinese believe that the divine (Shangdi, the Lord of Heaven) has established the world's fundamental law (Dao). If people can correctly interpret Dao and implement it in their lives, they will achieve happiness. The person tasked with interpreting Dao, who has the authority to determine what aligns with Dao and what does not, is the emperor. Shangdi grants the ruler a special status known as the Mandate of Heaven (tianming). If the emperor adheres to Dao, Shangdi bestows the mandate; if the ruler governs contrary to Dao, Shangdi withdraws the mandate, and the emperor loses power. This is how Chinese historians explained dynastic changes. The concept of the Mandate of Heaven accounts for the deep respect the Chinese have for authority.
Given the decline of the country during the Eastern Zhou, it implies that the rulers did not heed Dao. Chinese philosophers sought to answer the question of what principles should guide the governance of the country, striving to correctly interpret Dao. Each philosophical school proposed its own path. Chinese chronicles state that at the dawn of Chinese philosophy, there were one hundred schools. This number is symbolic, but it highlights the diversity of early philosophical discourse in China. The primary figures in this philosophical discourse were several schools. Historians of Chinese philosophy assert that officials from various departments founded different philosophical schools. For instance, the Ru (Confucianism) school was founded by officials from the educational department, the Dao (Daoism) school by court historians, the Yin-Yang school by court sorcerers, diviners, and astrologers, the Fa (Legalists) school by judges, the Ming (School of Names) school by lawyers, and the Mo (Mohists) school by warriors. Confucianism and Daoism played the most significant roles in Chinese philosophical discourse, though other schools also left a substantial impact on Chinese philosophy and culture.
Mo Jia, or the Mohist school, founded by the Chinese philosopher Mozi, was composed of former soldiers. Mohists interpreted Dao as the principle of universal love. They believed that a world where everyone is happy could only be built on the foundation of love. If everyone loved everyone else, misfortunes would vanish. If each nation loved all other nations, wars would cease. If children loved all elders as their own parents, no one would be left without care and assistance in old age. If people loved all children as their own, there would be no orphans. If rulers loved their people as family, then the people would be happy. If everyone loved everyone else, then all would be happy. The Mohists based their principle of universal love on their conception of the divine. They argued that love is the fundamental characteristic of the divine, and thus emulating this trait is humanity's primary task. Other schools criticized the Mohists for promoting an unattainable utopia. Confucians, who were the Mohists' primary opponents, contended that a person who loves all nations equally would fail to defend their own homeland, and children who love all elders as their own parents would neglect their biological parents.
The Ming Jia, or School of Names, was founded by former lawyers. In the society of the time, the role of lawyers was not to seek truth and justice but to advocate for their clients' interests at any cost. A client hired a lawyer not to uncover the truth but to prove the client's position, even if it was false. These demands became the foundation of Ming Jia philosophy. Philosophers of this school were relativists, asserting that no absolute truth exists; rather, truth is what is advantageous and useful to an individual. The Ming Jia concept closely resembles the philosophy of ancient Greek sophists, who also trained lawyers and politicians and upheld the belief that what is advantageous is true. The first thinker of this school was Deng Xi, who lived in the 6th century BCE. One ancient text recounts: The waters of the Wei River had risen dramatically. In the household of a wealthy man in the Zheng kingdom, a drowned body was discovered. Someone retrieved the corpse. The wealthy man sought a ransom. The body’s possessor demanded too much gold, so the wealthy man turned to Deng Xi. Deng Xi replied, “Don’t worry—he won’t sell it to anyone else.” The possessor of the body, too, grew concerned and went to Deng Xi. Deng Xi reassured him, “Don’t worry. He won’t sell it anywhere but to you.” This example illustrates how Deng Xi presented what he was paid for. Hui Shi, another representative of the school, developed the theory of the relativity of truth: any judgment is relative, and there is no absolute truth. Hui Shi claimed that if someone calls something great, that judgment is only true when the thing is compared to things smaller than it. Gongsun Long argued that no law could function since laws pertain to universal categories rather than individual entities, and the world contains only individual entities.
The Yin-Yang Jia, or School of Yin-Yang, was formed by former diviners and astrologers. In ancient Chinese culture, diviners played an important role, and rulers did not make significant decisions without consulting a diviner. The Yin-Yang Jia sought to philosophically understand divination. Eventually, this school merged with Daoism, but while it existed independently, it developed calendars necessary for astrology and studied nature to the extent required for divination. This school also formulated the concept of Feng Shui.
The Fa Jia, or School of Legalism, was founded by former judges. Legalists asserted that only a state that strictly adheres to the law can be considered good. Guan Zhong (720-645 BCE) proclaimed the supremacy of the law, claiming that Dao is expressed through state legislation. A well-organized state and a happy people could only exist when everyone strictly adhered to the law. Legalists emerged during the chaos of the Eastern Zhou: whenever a country faced political disorder, individuals advocating for harsh measures to enforce strict adherence to the law appeared. In ancient China, these individuals were the Legalists. Guan Zhong argued that law is an expression of Dao, or the will of Heaven, and must be strictly followed. To ensure unwavering adherence to the law, the ruler must possess absolute power. Thus, Legalists advocated for dictatorship. The most prominent thinker of this school was Shang Yang (390-338 BCE). He maintained:
· The emperor must wield unlimited power and exercise it harshly. The people should fear the authority as they would a dreadful disease, otherwise, they would not obey the government and follow the law.
· Only agriculture and the military are beneficial to the state. All other activities should be banned.
· Patronymic systems (family estates) should be dismantled, their property confiscated, and people turned into labor brigades with collective responsibility for failing to meet norms. In such conditions, brigade members would report on each other.
· Everything that proposes an alternative to the law must be destroyed, meaning traditions should be abandoned.
· People should pay a poll tax, or a tax for simply living. This will compel everyone to work and eliminate idleness.
· Human nature is inherently evil, and thus the law must be so severe as to prevent people from acting upon their evil impulses.
· Punishments for breaking the law should be so severe that people fear committing crimes. If people fear punishment, they will not break the law, and thus there will be no one to punish. This is the principle of eradicating crime through punishment.
The problems of governance during the Eastern Zhou ultimately led to its downfall. The power was seized by Emperor Qin Shi Huang, the founder of the Qin dynasty. He was a typical dictator who came to power after political chaos. Armed with Legalist philosophy, he imposed severe terror to dismantle the traditional order and establish the law as the foundation of the state. The primary victims of this terror were Confucians, who were the staunchest opponents of the Legalists. A few years after Qin Shi Huang's death, his dynasty ceased to exist, becoming, like any dictatorship, a mere moment in history. The succeeding Han dynasty abandoned Legalism and based its ideology on Confucianism.