History of Philosophy

Philosophy of the Far East

Indian Philosophy

The principal centers of cultural development in the Far East were India and China, where distinct philosophical concepts originated. Indian and Chinese philosophies evolved differently, addressing various questions. Indian philosophy is characterized by its development as a commentary on religious texts. Hinduism produced a range of sacred texts, traditionally divided into two groups:

• Śruti — These are the sacred texts, the Vedas. The term "Veda" means knowledge. Hindus regard the Vedas as eternal, uncreated knowledge that underpins all existence. The Vedas are divided into four parts:

✵ Rigveda — The oldest part of the Vedas, compiled between 1700 and 1100 BCE but transmitted orally for a long time. It consists of 1028 hymns outlining the foundations of Hindu doctrine.

✵ Samaveda — Texts for liturgical use.

✵ Yajurveda — A collection of mantras for rituals.

✵ Atharvaveda — A collection of charms for personal use. Each Veda contains four sections or levels of text:

• Samhitas — The main text of the Vedas.
• Brahmanas — Commentaries on the Samhitas, intended for Hindu priests (Brahmins), containing ritual instructions.
• Aranyakas (Forest Books) — Texts for Hindu ascetics.
• Upanishads — Theological and philosophical commentaries on the Samhitas. They are particularly significant for the study of Indian philosophy.
• Smṛti — These are religious texts that are not sacred, meaning they reveal aspects of religious life but are not considered as sacred as the Śruti texts. Smṛti literature is vast and divided into five categories:

✵ Dharmashastras — Collections of laws and norms of behavior. The most significant is the Laws of Manu. Manu, in Indian mythology, is the first ruler of humanity who survived the Great Flood and left behind laws governing all aspects of human life: religious rites, rulers' duties, family matters, and punishments for crimes.

✵ Itihasas — Poetic histories and epics. Major works include:

• Mahabharata — One of the largest epics in human history, recounting the war between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. The war serves as a backdrop to explore fundamental questions of good and evil, morality, justice, and duty. The Pandavas question their moral right to fight the evil Kauravas, with the author’s answer being that defeating evil is their moral obligation.
• Bhagavad Gita — A key section of the Mahabharata, depicting a moment before the main battle where Arjuna, the Pandava leader, questions the morality of war. Krishna, his charioteer and the avatar of the deity Vishnu, reveals his divine nature and explains that Arjuna’s fight against the Kauravas is a fulfillment of his moral duty.
• Ramayana — An epic about Rama and his wife Sita. The demon Lanka abducts Sita, who continues to love Rama. Rama defeats Lanka but cannot reunite with Sita until she undergoes a purifying trial. Sita, longing to be with Rama, dies and is reborn in another body, ultimately becoming Rama’s wife. Sita’s story symbolizes the soul’s journey away from Brahma and its return through the purification of karma.

✵ Puranas — Narratives about the creation of the universe, additional creations and restorations, genealogies of gods and sages, human creation, and historical dynasties.

✵ Vedangas — Treatises on various branches of knowledge, primarily used for educational purposes.

✵ Agamas — Treatises on aspects of Hindu theology.

Indian views on the world are marked by several characteristics:

• Monism — The belief that all existence is a single monad, known as Brahman. According to this view, only Brahman exists; deities, humans, and the world are mere expressions (avatars) of Brahman.
• The Self — The individual self (Atman) is considered an expression of Brahman. Realization of this identity leads to merging with Brahman and losing individual existence, achieving nirvana (nothingness). Reaching nirvana is the ultimate goal for Hindus.
• Illusion (Maya) — If one does not realize their unity with Brahman, they live in the illusion of individual existence. Even death does not free them from this illusion. Attachment to the world leads to rebirth in a new body. This cycle of rebirth (samsara) continues until one realizes their non-existence.
• Karma — The law of justice governing samsara, where the conditions of one’s rebirth are determined by their actions in previous lives. Those who lived virtuously are reborn into higher castes and experience happiness, while those who lived sinful lives must atone in their next life. Karma regulates this process.

Monism shaped the direction of Indian culture. If the world is merely an illusion, investing efforts in spiritual development is more worthwhile than focusing on material culture. Consequently, Indians have contributed invaluable spiritual insights to world culture but have made fewer contributions to material culture.

Over millennia, Indian spiritual tradition has amassed significant philosophical developments. Indian philosophy is rooted in religion and aims to understand the path to nirvana, salvation, and spiritual perfection. Hindu religiosity is based on the Vedas, and the approach to the Vedas is a criterion for classifying Indian philosophy. Some philosophical schools recognize the authority of the Vedas, while others reject it. Orthodox schools, which accept the Vedas' authority, are known as Astika. There are six Astika schools (Vedanta, Mimamsa, Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, and Vaisheshika). In contrast to European philosophy, where schools diverge based on different views on the same subject, Indian Astika schools agree on the Vedic foundations of Hindu doctrine but explore different aspects of Hinduism. Besides Astika, which comprises orthodox schools recognizing the Vedas, there are non-orthodox schools known as Nastika, including Buddhism, Jainism, and Charvaka-Lokayata. Buddhism and Jainism evolved into separate religions, while Charvaka-Lokayata developed an atheistic-materialistic philosophical doctrine.