History of Philosophy

Philosophy of the Far East

Astika

The most significant school within the Astika tradition is Vedanta, which means "the end of the Vedas." Originally, this term referred to the Upanishads, as they were the latest texts among the Shruti, but over time it came to denote a distinct philosophical school. Vedanta primarily addresses Hindu doctrine, particularly the interpretation of Hinduism's core tenet—monism. Vedantic thinkers sought to explain how the world could arise if nothing exists apart from Brahman. None of them questioned the existence of Brahman as the sole reality, with everything else being merely illusion (maya). This assertion required detailed clarification: what does it mean that the world is an illusion? This question became the central focus of Vedantic contemplation. The most influential Vedantic thinkers include:

• Shankara (788-820), the preeminent Indian philosopher, is known for his position, termed Advaita Vedanta or extreme monism. He argued that the creation of the world is not the inception of something new and separate but rather a projection of illusion. God does not create the world in the sense of initiating something previously non-existent, but rather manifests the appearance of the world. Maya is the force through which God manifests outwardly. To the observer, the world seems real because not everyone is able to see the true essence of Brahman behind its manifestations. The perception of the world's reality arises from ignorance. Shankara posited that Brahman could be perceived in two ways. Rational and linguistic categories confine Brahman to the realm of human understanding. In this perspective, Shankara refers to Brahman as Saguna or Ishvara, meaning the Lord as an object of worship. From the standpoint of divine transcendence, Brahman is utterly indescribable, devoid of attributes, and beyond any concepts or categories. Brahman is an absolute mystery, unknowable in its essence. Thus, Shankara describes Brahman as Nirguna. Understanding Brahman-Nirguna is not attainable without first grasping Brahman-Saguna, meaning one cannot realize the absolute transcendence and mystery of God without adhering to rituals, practicing asceticism, and studying sacred texts. Since the human body is material and matter is a product of maya, the body itself is illusory. Human attachment to the body leads to dependence on it, a consequence of ignorance of the truth.
• Ramanuja (12th century), another Vedantic thinker, is known for his doctrine of Vishishtadvaita or qualified monism. He criticized Shankara's excessive emphasis on the world's illusoriness. Ramanuja argued that the world exists in reality, not as an illusion. However, this real existence does not contradict monism because Brahman created the world from itself. Thus, the world is part of Brahman. It is a mistake to consider the world as a separate substance from Brahman. Since the world is not an illusion but a part of God, and God reveals Himself through the real creation, it implies that God has positive attributes. Ramanuja rejected the conception of God as Nirguna. God is only Saguna. The individual self is not an illusion; it truly exists but is a part of God. Therefore, the self and God are simultaneously identical and distinct. According to Ramanuja, as with Shankara, the goal of spiritual life is the realization of one's identity with God, but this identification does not negate one's existence.
• Madhva (c. 1238-c. 1317) formulated the doctrine known as Dvaita Vedanta. According to this view, the world and the self are neither illusions nor parts of God but separate substances that exist eternally. The relationship between God, the world, and the self is realized in the fact that the world and the self are constantly dependent on God.
• Nimbarka (12th century) is the author of the doctrine known as Dvaita-Advaita. The world exists in reality; it is not an illusion, nor is it created from a part of God but from nothing. God created everything purely by His will, and all that exists continues to depend on God.
• Vallabha (1479-1531) established the doctrine of Shuddhadvaita. He taught that God and the world are one because God is the world. God has transformed into the world; thus, all that exists is part of God, and God has become material.

In the 19th century, Vedanta experienced a new development under the leadership of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836-1886). Ramakrishna maintained that there is only Brahman, and everything else is merely its expression. Since everything is an expression of Brahman, Brahman is present everywhere: in every religion and every culture. Truth resides in everything, and hence there are many paths to Brahman, each valid in its own way. Thus, Ramakrishna, building on Hindu monism, developed his own religious eclecticism. The Ramakrishna Order and the Ramakrishna Mission, founded by Ramakrishna and his disciple Vivekananda, promote his ideas worldwide.

The second significant Astika school is Mimamsa, whose philosophers aimed to justify the necessity of adhering to religious rituals. The foremost thinker of this school was Rishi (sage) Jaimini (4th-3rd centuries BCE). The Mimamsa followers justified their positions through the analysis of knowledge. They identified two types of knowledge:

• Direct knowledge arises when the senses perceive an object. Direct knowledge informs a person about the existence of something but does not reveal what that object is.
• Indirect knowledge uncovers the essence of an object whose existence was made known through direct knowledge. Five types of indirect knowledge are distinguished:

✵ Logical inference: Mimamsa followers did not develop their theory but borrowed it from the Nyaya school.

✵ Comparison: perceiving similarities or differences between an object and other objects known from the past.

✵ Authoritative testimony: knowledge can come from the testimony of authoritative figures or experts.

✵ Postulation: proposing a hypothesis to explain a fact.

✵ Denial: asserting that something does not exist.

Mimamsa philosophers asserted that the most authoritative testimony comes from the Vedas. What is stated in the Vedas is true and should not be questioned. Since the Vedas prescribe the performance of religious rituals, they must be observed. The Vedas also prescribe adherence to moral rules. Hence, one must follow moral norms for the sake of the authority of the Vedas. Thus, Mimamsa philosophers developed the ethics of duty, which is the belief that moral principles and religious rituals should be performed solely because their observance is a duty.

The third school of orthodox philosophy is Samkhya, founded by Kapila. This school is focused on the inner world of the individual. The philosophers of this school based their philosophy on two principles: Prakriti and Purusha. Prakriti is everything that can be an object of knowledge, that is, everything that cannot be identified with the subject of knowledge. Purusha is the subject of knowledge, the Self, the human soul. Prakriti is a product of Purusha, not the other way around. In Purusha arise the three Gunas (modes of the soul): the cause of pleasure, the cause of suffering, and the cause of indifference. These sensations must have quality objects to which they are directed, for one needs something to experience pleasure or suffering. Thus, Prakriti (the world) is the offspring of Purusha (the soul), not vice versa. Humans are prone to error, believing that Prakriti is the true reality. The consequence of this mistake is the human's entrapment. The absurdity of this situation lies in the fact that people become slaves not to something real, but to their own illusions. This dependency generates human suffering, from which one seeks liberation, achievable only through the realization of the illusory nature of Prakriti.

The fourth school of orthodox philosophy is Yoga. While Samkhya is the theory of liberating the individual from dependency and suffering, Yoga is the practice of liberation. The Samkhya philosophers argued that humans are enslaved by their own illusions and must free themselves from them, while the Yoga philosophers sought to elucidate how this can be achieved. The founder of this school is considered to be the sage Patanjali. The liberation of the Self involves halting the modifications of the mind, occurring alongside the refinement of spiritual life, which has five stages: restlessness (distraction by various material attachments and the flow of thoughts), inactivity (awareness of the futility of one's desires and renunciation of them), distraction (uncertainty in seeking paths to liberation), concentration (bringing thoughts and consciousness into order), and cessation (stopping the activity of consciousness). Therefore, to achieve liberation, one must disconnect consciousness, for consciousness itself is the creator of the illusory world. Yoga philosophers believed that liberation is impossible without moral refinement, which aims at achieving virtues such as restraint, cultural refinement, posture, control of breath, overcoming sensations, attention, contemplation, and concentration. The Yoga philosophers developed numerous ascetic practices and meditative techniques designed to halt the flow of consciousness and free individuals from suffering caused by dependence on their own illusions and the illusory world.

The fifth school of orthodox philosophy is Nyaya, founded by the sage Gautama. The topics explored by the philosophers of this school included logic, epistemology, and theology. They were convinced that to free the mind from illusions and errors, correct thinking was essential, and thus they focused primarily on what could promote infallible thinking. Nyaya philosophers held that true knowledge is clear, unequivocal, and infallible. Knowledge comes in two types: valid (prama), which includes perception (clear and true knowledge of objects resulting from the contact of objects with the senses), inference (knowledge gained through common patterns associated with objects), comparison (reproducing the link between words and the objects they denote), and testimony (statements from authoritative individuals deemed trustworthy); and invalid (apramā), which includes memory, doubt, error, and hypothetical argument. Based on their work in logic and epistemology, Nyaya philosophers developed arguments for the existence of God:

• All entities have a creator; this creator is God.
• For the law of karma to function, someone must establish this law and oversee its enforcement. The person who does this must be above karma. Such a person is God.
• Since the Vedas affirm the existence of God, and the Vedas are the highest authoritative source of knowledge, it follows that God exists.

The sixth school of orthodox philosophy was Vaisheshika, founded by the sage Kanada. The adherents of this school believed that the essence of a thing is revealed in seven categories: substance, quality, action, generality (the common essence of a genus, a shared characteristic of a class), particularity (vaishesha), inherence (the constant and unchanging connection between two attributes or atoms), and non-existence. The world arises when atoms are arranged in a specific order and dissolves when this order ceases. These processes, and their characteristics, such as the order of atomic arrangement, occur according to the moral law of karma. The philosophers of Vaisheshika referred to the period of the world's existence as a Kalpa. From the thesis that the world arises and perishes according to the law of karma, it follows the necessity of a legislator who would establish and oversee the implementation of this law, and a creator who would create and destroy the world in accordance with karma.