Trends in the Development of Contemporary World Philosophy

Philosophical Problems of Psychoanalysis: Freudianism and Neo-Freudianism

Freudianism played a significant role in shaping the modern understanding of humanity in the 20th century. It is essential to note that Freud made the unconscious the focal point of his study, in contrast to the cult of reason characteristic of the Enlightenment. His teachings delivered a powerful blow to human self-importance by demonstrating that the conscious self is not the master of its own house, thereby debunking the illusions of exaggerated rationalism. Freud articulated his main ideas in works such as The Ego and the Id, Totem and Taboo, The Interpretation of Dreams, and The Psychopathology of Everyday Life. As previously mentioned, Freud posited that the human psyche consists of three components: the Ego, the Id, and the Superego.

The rational part of our personality—the Ego—balances between the Superego and the Id, existing "between the hammer and the anvil." The Id emerges as the "unhappy Ego." It is pressured from above by societal demands—morality and various constraints—and from below by complexes and instincts. The latter cannot be entirely suppressed or fully subordinated to the Superego; doing so typically results in neuroses or even psychological disorders. The intense inner tension can ultimately destroy human personality. Sublimation serves as a means of "unloading" the psyche, with Freud considering religion and art as particularly significant forms.

Freud's teachings are referred to as psychoanalysis because he meticulously developed a methodology for identifying manifestations of the unconscious through psychotherapeutic procedures, such as dream analysis and unintended slips of the tongue, to legitimize the blocked energies, if only in words.

Thus, according to Freud, the energy of the unconscious largely determines the workings of human consciousness and external behavior. While the influence of Freudianism on global public opinion in the 1920s and 1930s was immense, the overemphasis on the dynamics of the human psyche—primarily the sexual instinct—elicited negative evaluations from many scholars and thinkers. This ultimately led to the emergence of neo-Freudianism, with key figures including Carl Gustav Jung, Alfred Adler, Erich Fromm, and others.

One of Freud's closest associates and a popularizer of his teachings, the Swiss psychologist and founder of analytical psychology, Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961), later critiqued Freud's doctrines. From his perspective, the unconscious encompasses not only the personal unconscious, which Freud deemed a product of an individual's life, but also a collective unconscious stemming from deep historical roots, comprised of archetypes—“prototypical symbols.” Jung placed particular emphasis on such archetypes as the "Persona," "Shadow," "Anima," "Animus," and "Self."

Alfred Adler (1870-1937), like Jung, disagreed with the exaggeration of the sexual element in human behavior. He highlighted the role of social factors in shaping individuals. A person's character arises from their "lifestyle," which is a system of purposeful aspirations formed in childhood, aimed at achieving superiority over others and self-affirmation to compensate for feelings of inferiority. Adler argued that feelings of inferiority originate in childhood when a child experiences a prolonged dependency on their parents, leading to a profound sense of inferiority compared to others. This initiates a long struggle for superiority over one's peers. According to Adler, the drive for superiority is the primary motivational force in human life. Essentially, everything a person does aims to overcome feelings of inferiority and strengthen their sense of superiority. However, for some individuals, feelings of inferiority may become excessive, resulting in an inferiority complex.

The principal figure of neo-Freudianism, Erich Fromm (1900-1980), focused on transforming psychoanalysis into a social philosophy. His views are examined in the section dedicated to neo-Marxism.