Trends in the Development of Contemporary World Philosophy

Philosophy of Existentialism

One of the influential currents of contemporary Western philosophy is existentialism. Its name derives from the Latin ex(s)istentia, meaning existence, and thus this movement is also referred to as the "philosophy of existence." In contrast to rationalist philosophy, existentialism regards the human being as a suffering, tragic creature who possesses the freedom of choice and is responsible for their actions.

Existentialism emerged in the 1920s between the two World Wars and continued to develop during and after the Second World War. The catastrophic historical upheavals and the loss of millions of lives sharply underscored the fragility of human existence, intensifying the question of its meaning. According to existentialism, to endure in such a world, one must first comprehend their inner self, with a primary focus on the spiritual resilience of individuals in the face of an adversarial world.

The principal representatives of existentialism include: in Germany—Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), Karl Jaspers (1883-1969); in France—Gabriel Marcel (1889-1973), Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980), Albert Camus (1913-1960), Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961); and in Spain—José Ortega y Gasset (1883-1955), who was closely aligned with this movement. The intellectual precursors of existentialism are considered to be the French philosopher of the 17th century, Blaise Pascal, the Danish philosopher of the 19th century, Søren Kierkegaard, the Russian writer Fyodor Dostoevsky, and the representatives of the "philosophy of life" movement—Friedrich Nietzsche, Henri Bergson, and Wilhelm Dilthey. The systematic organization of existentialist ideas is attributed to Heidegger ("Being and Time"), Jaspers ("Philosophy"), and Sartre ("Being and Nothingness"). Within existentialism, two main strands have developed: the atheistic—Heidegger, Sartre, Camus; and the Christian—Jaspers, Marcel.

A prominent precursor of existentialism, who essentially laid its foundations, was Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855). In his works "Fear and Trembling," "Either/Or," and "Stages on Life's Way," he emphasized that the first and sole subject worthy of philosophical attention can only be the human being, known only through internal experience and self-reflection. Kierkegaard was the first to employ the term "existence" to denote such characteristics of human being as singularity, uniqueness, its wholly subjective nature, and the aspiration to transcend any limits. The very word "existence," signifying existence in Latin, also points to another meaning—stepping beyond the established. These qualities, according to Kierkegaard, characterize the profound dimension of human existence.

The first theorist of existentialism was Martin Heidegger, who, in his work "Being and Time," posed the problem of human abandonment in a world foreign to them. Heidegger argued that traditional European philosophy had "forgotten" such a crucial issue for humanity as the question "of the meaning of being," which can be resolved through the analysis of human existence, as only to humans is being "open." Human existence in the world can be characterized as "authentic" and "inauthentic." The "inauthentic" life is one lived in "the manner of others." Other individuals appear to us as objects. In looking at them, we begin to regard ourselves as objects too. Viewing a person as an object implies that they can be "replaced." This leads to a false existence in "average-ness," which Heidegger expresses through the existential concept of "Man" (a pronoun in German indicating an indefinite subject performing an action). In an inauthentic existence, an individual is immersed in the "they," which is impersonal, and thus they remain oblivious to their mortality. "Authentic being" is linked to the awareness of one's mortality. In death, an individual no longer appears as a function, as an object among objects; here, they are unique.

Jean-Paul Sartre focuses on the inner self-awareness of the individual, their experience of their own being. He considers freedom to be the fundamental characteristic of humanity. There exists no force that compels a person to act or live in a particular manner; ultimately, whatever happens, an individual chooses what to accept and what to reject. Why do people not realize their freedom? Because the fear of death compels them to hide from it, living "like everyone else." Yet, freedom demands responsibility for the consequences of one's chosen actions.

Thus, the foundational principle of existentialism is to regard the individual not from the outside, as an object of observation and study, but from within their spiritual world. While philosophers of the classical tradition sought to explain human existence based on the laws of nature and the objective world, existentialists emphasize that the human "I" cannot be reduced to physical and psychological processes, nor to any universal psychological or physiological components. The human being is a unique existence— the only being capable of questioning itself and existence in general. To describe human existence, existentialists utilize not the categories of objective science, but subjective, emotionally-charged concepts—existentials such as "care," "abandonment," "alienation," "fear," "absurdity," and "death." Existentials characterize not the world apart from the individual, but the unity of the world and humanity.

For existentialism, the question of nature's independent existence holds little interest. From its perspective, the world exists for the individual only insofar as they bestow upon it meaning and significance. Being-in-the-world is revealed through the inseparable "doing" of the individual, which, in turn, unfolds through "care." These tenets of existentialism are profoundly relevant today, as humanity's care for the preservation of the planet's being, civilization, and natural environment must counter the destructive tendencies that have spiraled out of control.

Existentialism posits that an individual is the architect of their own identity, asserting that existence precedes essence. A child, upon birth, already exists, yet must embark on the journey to discover their human essence, to become truly human. This implies that there is no preordained or "ready-made" human nature. A person is a sort of "project," living, unfolding, and either realizing or failing to realize themselves. The process of discovering one’s human essence is a lifelong endeavor. The human condition is one of perpetual journeying, signifying a constant quest for one's essence, specifically their human essence. At every moment of existence, an individual chooses themselves, condemned as they are to freedom. We are "thrown" into a specific era and social condition, but the choices we make—who we become—are ultimately up to us. No external force (be it God, society, or nature), nor anyone other than the individual themselves, can effectuate their transformation into humanity. Thus, they bear the weight of responsibility if this transformation never occurs.

Freedom and choice are inextricably linked with anxiety, concern, and responsibility. Each choice made by an individual carries a multitude of consequences, for which they are accountable, both to themselves and to others, and it is no small burden to continually bear this responsibility. Existentialists argue against the belief in a predetermined, guaranteed progress. Such faith in the twentieth century is not merely naive but exceptionally perilous. As noted by X. Ortega y Gasset, the notion of progress has lulled Europeans and Americans into a state of complacency, dulling the radical sense of danger that constitutes humanity. For if humanity progresses inevitably, it follows that we may relinquish our vigilance, shed our responsibilities, and allow the objective course of history to unfold unchecked.

A unique place in the quest for self-understanding, according to existentialism, is held by marginal (liminal) situations, where an individual confronts death, loss, love, suffering, or guilt. It is in these critical moments that one’s true essence is most fully revealed, as they stand bare before themselves and others, without the pretense of "masks."

Existential philosophy defines life as "being-toward-death." All beings are mortal, so why is it only humanity that grapples with such questions? Because humans possess the awareness of their own mortality. Animals, too, are mortal, yet they remain oblivious and, therefore, carefree. Humanity finds itself in the most tragic and unfortunate of fates: to be mortal and to be cognizant of it. Yet, at the very core of human existence lies a paradox: knowing that one is inevitably mortal, individuals deny death with every moment of their lives. The tragic and paradoxical nature of humanity was poignantly captured by the ancient Greeks in their mythic symbols. Consider Sisyphus, condemned by the gods to roll a heavy stone up a mountain. Each time he reaches the summit through tremendous effort, the stone rolls back down with a thunderous crash, and the unfortunate Sisyphus descends to the base once more to push it up again, an eternal cycle. This narrative was employed by A. Camus in his work "The Myth of Sisyphus," wherein he articulates what he believes to be the central philosophical question: is life worth living? Camus presents his interpretation of human existence as "being in absurdity." In this world, an individual can hope for nothing outside of themselves. Yet, one can muster the strength to resist absurdity and hopelessness. Camus sees the humanistic task of philosophy as aiding individuals on the brink of despair to preserve their lives. Philosophy’s assistance should not consist of well-meaning but optimistic reassurances that life is beautiful. Camus contends that one must face life "with open eyes," free from illusions: the world is absurd, just as Sisyphus’s actions are absurd. Nevertheless, life, even amidst absurdity, is the highest value. Thus, Camus transitions from a tragic absurdism to a tragic optimism.

In our era, the liminal situation between life and death has become not just an individual issue, but a universal human dilemma. For the first time in history, humanity faces the threat of death not in the abstract, but in stark reality. The most vital step that modern humanity must take is to recognize that the current situation is indeed liminal, and the fear of global catastrophe must galvanize efforts toward the survival of humankind.

The philosophy of existentialism vividly manifests in literature and art. It remains relevant as it touches upon the most profound depths of the human soul, expressing universal human values.