Trends in the Development of Contemporary World Philosophy

Social-Critical Directions in 20th Century Philosophy: The Philosophy of Neomarxism

Neomarxism is understood as a collective of Marxist-oriented philosophical movements that are critically inclined both towards capitalism and towards real socialism, along with its official ideology, which neomarxists characterize as dogmatic Marxism. However, while rejecting orthodox Marxism, representatives of this direction utilize Marxist explanatory models and ideas to varying degrees, specifically: the critique of bourgeois relations; the importance of overcoming alienation and self-alienation of individuals; the role of practice as a mode of existence for humanity; and dialectical principles. All these ideas converge around Marx's concept of radical humanism.

The principal figures of neomarxism include György Lukács, Antonio Gramsci, Wilhelm Reich, Ernst Bloch, and notably, thinkers from the so-called Frankfurt School (the term "neomarxism" is sometimes specifically used to denote the foundational principles of the research conducted by representatives of this school)—Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Jürgen Habermas, Herbert Marcuse, and Erich Fromm. Let us delve deeper into the views of Herbert Marcuse and Erich Fromm.

Herbert Marcuse (1898-1979), in his seminal works Eros and Civilization, An Essay on Liberation, One-Dimensional Man, and The Counter-Revolution of the Rising Masses, develops the concepts of the "one-dimensional man" and the "sexual revolution." He argues that the crisis of capitalist society is not caused by economic or technological factors, but by cultural-anthropological reasons. In the 20th century, repressive, authoritarian tendencies have come to dominate, rooted in a specific way of experiencing the world. Changing relationships is only possible by altering this worldview. For Marcuse, a true revolution must not only change political and economic relations of power, but also radically transform consciousness. A "total revolution" is required—a complete reevaluation of the relationship between individuals and the world, as well as with themselves. The repressive type of culture is primarily linked to the repression of human sensibility and the social practices that suppress inherent human drives. A crucial task of the revolution is to overcome the "one-dimensional man." In his work of the same name, Marcuse notes that the "one-dimensional man" represents a specific type of personality—a conformist who has lost a socially critical relationship to reality, ensnared in a consumerist race due to imposed "false" needs. Marcuse posits that revolutionary initiative in the modern world has shifted from the working class, integrated into the capitalist system, to the unintegrated marginal layers of society—"outsiders" such as lumpen-proletarians, persecuted national minorities, the unemployed, and also to the radical strata of students and the humanitarian intelligentsia. On a global scale, the carriers of revolutionary initiative should be the impoverished masses of "poor" countries opposing the "rich."

Erich Fromm (1900-1980), while exploring the alienation of individuals within bourgeois society in his works The Sane Society, Escape from Freedom, Man for Himself, and To Have or to Be?, proposed the idea of "humanistic psychoanalysis." The objectives of "humanistic psychoanalysis" are to assist individuals in recognizing the invalidity of their existence in a society of total alienation, to discover their true "Self" as opposed to the "false Self," to revive a life-affirming worldview, and to restore harmony between the individual and society.

Fromm emphasizes that each historical period is characterized by a progressive development of individuality as people strive for greater personal freedom in realizing their potential. However, a significant degree of autonomy and freedom of choice has been achieved at the cost of losing a sense of security, leading to an increasing feeling of personal uncertainty and insignificance. Unprecedented freedom from social constraints necessitates compensation in the form of security and belonging to society. How do people overcome this conflict? One approach involves renouncing freedom and suppressing their individuality. Fromm identifies three strategies of "escape from freedom":

• Authoritarianism, manifesting in both masochistic and sadistic tendencies;
• Destructiveness, where individuals seek to overcome feelings of inferiority through destruction or domination over others;
• Conformism, a path of absolute submission to social norms, where individuals cease to be themselves and become what others wish to see. Fromm argues that such a loss of individuality is characteristic of the majority of modern people.

In contrast to these three mechanisms of escape from freedom, there is also the experience of positive freedom. Its attainment occurs through spontaneous activity in life—in love and work.

According to Fromm, human nature is embedded with unique existential needs, which can be represented in Table 13.

Table 13.

Need	Content of the Need	Consequences
In establishing connections with others	To overcome feelings of isolation, individuals must care for someone and bear responsibility for them.	The ideal path to satisfy this need is through productive love, which helps people work together while preserving their individuality.
		If this need is unmet, individuals develop a narcissistic character, asserting only their selfish interests and mistrusting others.
In overcoming	All individuals need to transcend their passive animal nature to become active creators of their lives.	This is achieved through creativity—in the arts, in creating material values, or in raising children.
		If this need is unmet, the result is destructive behavior.
Need for rootedness	This need pertains to stability and protection.	A sense of stability, security, integrity, and freedom is formed.
		Feelings of instability and insecurity arise.
Need for identity	This need involves preserving one's uniqueness and individuality.	A clear and distinct self-image is formed. Individuals with a well-defined understanding of their individuality perceive themselves as masters of their fate.
		Mimicking others' behavior leads to conformism.
Need for a system of worldviews	The necessity to explain the complexity of the world.	Provides the capacity for purposeful action and an adequate perception of reality.
		People without a worldview orientation are incapable of acting purposefully, finding themselves in a deadlock.

Considering these needs within an economic-political context, Fromm asserts that the expression and satisfaction of these needs depend on the type of social conditions. The character of social relations shapes the structure of personality, which Fromm refers to as the fundamental "character orientations," considered stable over time, similar to Freud's perspective.

Fromm identified five types of social character, four of which are unproductive, and one that is productive (healthy). The unproductive types are as follows:

• The Receptive Type believes that the source of all that is good in life lies in the external world, and the only way to obtain what is desired is through receiving it as a gift from outside. Individuals of this type are dependent and passive, unable to take action without external assistance. Their primary objective in life is to be loved rather than to love. Receptive individuals can be characterized as trusting, passive, and sentimental.
• The Exploitative Type, like the receptive type, lacks creativity and seeks to obtain everything it needs from the external world, whether through force or deception. Negative traits of this type include aggressiveness, self-reliance, and egocentrism, while positive traits encompass a sense of self-worth, impulsiveness, and self-confidence.
• The Hoarding Type is marked by distrust of anything that can be obtained externally and tends towards accumulation and preservation of what is gathered, exhibiting a tendency toward miserly behavior and a focus on the past. Negative characteristics include suspicion and stubbornness; positive traits consist of restraint and foresight.
• The Market Type is, according to Fromm, a product of modern capitalist society. Individuals of this type view everything as a commodity, with value determined by exchange worth. Their relationships with others are superficial. Their primary motto is: "I am who you want me to be." Negative traits include indiscrimination in means, aimlessness, opportunism, and tactlessness, while positive aspects include openness, generosity, and curiosity.
• The Productive Type, or healthy type, is characterized by an active engagement with the world based on the power of reason, creativity, and genuine love. Its primary qualities include autonomy, independence, honesty, serenity, love, and creativity. The capacity for love is the true measure of a person's worth. Respect for life, a sense of identity, and a need for unity with the world become predominant, facilitating a transition from egoism to altruism, from a mode of possession to a mode of being. The strength of productive love enables individuals of this type to passionately cherish all living things on Earth, embodying biophilia, which Fromm defined through qualities such as care, responsibility, and respect. This is the ultimate goal of human development.