Trends in the Development of Contemporary World Philosophy

Pragmatism

The foundations of pragmatism were laid in the 1870s by the American philosopher, mathematician, and logician Charles Peirce (1839-1914). Ultimately, pragmatism solidified as a philosophical movement in the early 20th century, with key figures including William James (1842-1910), John Dewey (1859-1952), Sidney Hook (1902-1989), and Ferdinand Schiller (1864-1937). The term derives from the Greek word “pragma,” which translates to “deed” or “action,” leading the proponents of this school to also refer to their doctrine as the “philosophy of action.” Pragmatism represents a distinctly American evolution of positivism, with its emergence closely tied to the rapid industrial and scientific-technological advancements in the United States at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Among business-minded individuals, utilitarianism (from the Latin utilitas, meaning “usefulness” or “benefit”) became the prevailing perspective—a principle that evaluates all phenomena based on their utility and capacity to serve as a means to achieve particular ends. Pragmatism thus provided the philosophical foundation for this life stance.

Pragmatism posits individual well-being and the pursuit of wealth and happiness as the primary goals of human existence. The central figure in the philosophy of pragmatism is the businessperson—energetic, willful, imbued with a spirit of individualism and a drive for gain. Such an individual is guided not by any particular doctrine but predominantly by instinct and intuition. Americans have traditionally relied on their own resources, fostering an education rooted in the principles of swift and effective action, without lingering over the underlying rationale for their endeavors. What matters is the energy and practical ingenuity, alongside a firm belief in one's capacity to tackle any challenge.

Pragmatic ideas gained widespread acceptance in the United States precisely because they resonated deeply with the mindset of the average individual, characterized by an aversion to convoluted deliberations, a penchant for practicality, and a cult of success. Pragmatism proclaimed a program for the “reconstruction of philosophy,” accusing all preceding philosophies of being detached from life, abstract, and contemplative. At the heart of philosophical inquiry was the moral mandate proposed by James: “do what pays off.”

For pragmatists, truth is interpreted as the alignment of thought and action. Scientific truth emerges when it constitutes a useful working hypothesis. As soon as truth ceases to “work” for us, it no longer holds the status of truth. Thus, pragmatism rejects the objectivity of truth and scientific theory, declaring “utility” or “convenience”—that is, individual success—as the criterion of truth. From this perspective, religion is deemed true if it brings some benefit, such as comfort to the believer. In this manner, pragmatism undermines the fundamental distinction between science and religion, as both can provide utility to people in their own ways. Ideas and theories, in pragmatism's view, serve as “instruments” of our activity, tools for successfully navigating challenging situations. Hence, Dewey termed his doctrine “instrumentalism.”

By placing the criterion of utility at the forefront, pragmatism simultaneously legitimizes any immoral act, provided it does not yield harmful consequences for the perpetrator. James introduced the notion of the uniqueness of each moral situation, which is why pragmatism is often referred to as situational ethics. From this relativistic standpoint arises the notion of a plurality of moral values. Consequently, the fundamental ethical principles of pragmatism assert that good is not an abstract concept but always corresponds to a specific human need; each moral situation is unique, thus negating the existence of “absolute truths,” compelling individuals to find new solutions each time.